VEDIC HERITAGE OF INDIA PART ONE INYTODUCTION TO THE VEDA The word 'Veda' philologically means knowledge. But in Indian tradition it implies the sacred knowledge that was divinely vouchsafed to the Rishis of yore. The word goes back to the Indo-European period having its cognate roots in [Greek] [Oida], [Latin Videre], [German[ [Wissen] and English [Wit]. The Veda which embodies the knowledge revealed to the Rishis, is regarded as sacred, and the knowledge concelaed and preserved therein, as eternal, valid for all times and climes [amrta], as it is called, since it leads one to [amrtatva], immprtality, the ultimate goal sought by a[Sadhaka]. The Veda assures us that one who seeks the eternal truth, guided by Rita, the Cosmic Law, will not miss the path of immortality, the path of ultimate Truth. The Veda which forms the basic source of all schools of thought, --religious philosophical and secular,-originated in the [Aryavarta], the [urheim] of the Vedic Aryans, that represented one of the most ancientcivilizations of the world that campaignedto make the entire world, a happy haven, where noble ideas and idealism could flourish-[krnvanto vishvam aryam]. All branches of Indian knowledge-science, pure and applied, as well as arts, and social institutions,whether religious or secular, proudly trace their origin back to the Veda. Gautama, a descendant of the great Vedic sage Gotama of Angirasa clan, clearly says-"The Veda is the source of Dhrama and the tradition and prectives of those who know it". The Veda is held, as a matter of fact, to be the indisputable final authority,--[Vedah Pramanam],--on all matters that are intimately related to the secular, religious and spiritual life of a Hindu, in fact, to his very existence, from time immemorial. In distress and happiness, in suffering and joy, in poverty and prosperity,--in short, in all situations and circumstances, in all happenings and events inone's life, the Veda has provided the guidelines, the codes of conduct for all, including those treading the dusty path of life. To practise austerity and not to indulge in extravagance, to restrain cravings and not to allow the [indriyas] to run amuck, to cultivate contentment with whatever has fallen to one's lot and to get by no means tempted by others' wealth, these are some of the basic principles, moral lessons given to us in Vedas. Whenever there arises a doubt regarding any of these matters and an easy solution is not forthcoming, one is asked to seek the answer in the Veda. It may be noted that the Veda has guided the destiny of the people of this great land for thousands of years in all circumstances, holding indisputable authority in matters relating to their secular and religious life. In short, the Veda is a veritable treasure-house of ancient wisdom. It is regarded as an encyclopaedia of universal knowledge, and has formed the very basis of the all-round development of the Aryan civilization. THE ORIGIN OF THE VEDA The Supreme Being, according to the Aryan tradition, after having created [brahma] first, communicated the Vedas, the repositories of universal knowledge, to him and then entursted him with the task of primeval creation. In the beginning of each [kalpa] [brahma] uttered the microsmic word (Vak, i.e.Om) marking the beginning of the process of creation. This mystical sound is described as eternal, having neither beginning nor end. This means that this microsmic sound wave ever remains pervading Nature, unchanged and Unchageable, and unaffected by the process of evolution and disolution, [Visrishti] and [Pralaya]. But, at the same time, it is not perceptible to the ordinary senses. Out of the deep vibration generated by the microsmic [vak], when released from the cosmic mouth of [Brahma], the macrocosm evolves itself bringing the gross universe into manifestation. This mystic vak, with its multifarious aspects, is found described in the Veda. It is said to have four facets which are variously described as (1) representing the three [vyahrtis], viz, [bhuh], [bhuvah], and [suvah]and the [om-kara], which epitomise the entirety of the divince wisdom reflected in the Veda; (2) in the lower plane, the [vak], spreads in vertical and horizontal dimensions, -in [Vyakarana] covering the grammatical structure of a languages in its entirety in the form of [nama], [akhyata], [upasarga] and [nipata]; in the [yajna-samsthas] it is made up of the [mantras], [kalpa], [brahmana] and [vyavahariki] [vak] (the vulgar tongue); (3) in the higher plane, it comprises four stages of production or expression of the sound, viz., [para], [pashyanti], [madhyama] and [vaikhari]. This sound is known as [nada], or [nada]-[brahma] divine vibration, which rises from the [muladhara] [chakra], and is rendered in articulate sound when it reaches the [Vaikhari] stage. The previous three stages are perceptible but to ayogi, who, when in deep meditation, enjoys the divine music of the [nada-brahma]. The [vak] in the form of nada-brahma pervades all the planets and the invisible. Hence it is identified with [Brahman], the Supreme Being. The [Primeval] [vak] manifests itself in four forms, as we learn from the great sage Dirghatamas,- [Catvari] [vak] [parimita] [padani], -which are perceived and realized only by those who, in their quest of Brahman, in their life--long [sadhana], have attained the status of [manishins] by bringing their mind and senses under complete control having eventually opened their third eye, [medha], -[tani] [vidur] [brahman] [ye] [manisinah]. This [nada]-[brahma], called [vak] in our present context, in its unmanifest subtle form passing through the stages of [para], [pashyanti] and [madhyma], is realized and identified only by the [sadhakas] who are constantly working in this line with complete devotion and zest for attaining Brahmanirvana, Brahmic Bliss. The Brahmarshis in the past, performing penance and austerity and religious observance-(Jub on 3.1.3.7)-and treading the path of [satya], and [rita], energised the electromagnetic line, the [parampara] and [sampradaya] of the Vedic seers and tried to maintain the great tradition of Brahmavidya intact. These Brahmarshis coud silently communicate with their chelas through the mysic [vak] at any stage of its evolution but depending on the actual gradation of the spiritual growth of the chela at the other end where it was received and analysed. This [vak] at the first three stages is known as [daivi], [divine], and at the fourth stage, i.e., of the [vaikhari], as [manusi], human. The [vak] at teh stage of [vaikhari], can be phonetically analysed letter by letter, phoneme by phoneme, whereas at its first three stages, it is beyond grammatical analysis. Hence it consists of subtle vibrations, in the form of [nada], cognisable only to the Yogins, inspired [sadhakas], The origin of the Veda through meditation, [dhyanaikagamya]--as it is expressed. It is beyond the apprehension of even of the [sadhakas] who have attained [manisitya], the state of a [manisin]. Even if, by good luck, they feel the vibration, they are incapable or understanding its signification, analysing and rendering it in articulate sound. A blind man cannot seeenchating beauty nor a deaf one hear divine music, as the Veda puts it: "One man hath never seen [vak], and Yet he seeth: one man hath hearing but hath never heard her. But to another hath she shown her beauty, as a fond well-dressed woman to her husband." [Yaska], the oldest commentator on the Veda, explaining the famous Rigvedic verse 1.164.45, observes that the omnipresent [vak], relayed by Brahman, marking the beginning of the process of creation, at the terrestrial region activated by Agni, becomes vibrant with the notes of [rathantara] melody of the [Samaveda]; at the middle region it pervades the atmosphere and the wind filled therein, vibrating with the sonorous music of [vamadevya] melody sung by the sage [Vamadeva]; at the heavenly region activated by the energy of the sun it is heard with the resounding notes of the Brihat melody of the Samaveda which is equated with thunder that follows the flash of lightning. These three samans of the [Samsveda] are endowed with supernatural power, andBrihat, the great mystic melody, it may be noted, is included among the manifestations of the divine glories of the Supreme Brahman enumerated in the Bhagavad Gita. The mystical cosmic [vak] is glorified in several verses of the Rigveda. in its wider sense it stands for the Veda in its entirety. But primarily it implies the mystic syllable [Om], in which the entire universe, visible and invisible, merges and disappears at the end of each yuga. The syllable [Om], in its gross form, represents the [Shabdabrahma] and in its subtle form the [nada-brahma]. In it sgross from it is audible to all, but in its subtle form it is perceptible only to the yogins. The Vedas, the Epics, the [Puranas] etc., representing universal knowledge merge in this [nada-brahma], i.e., in the mystical cosmic [Om], along with the entire universe reduced to sound waves, leaving no perceptible traces there of at the time of the great Pralaya, the utter dissolution of the universe. They, however, reappear at the beginning of each kalpa, when [Brahma] the divine agent of creation, sets on his task of re-creation. In the Vedanta Philosophy this cosmic syllable has been identified with the Supreme Brahman--[om] [ity] [ekaksaram] [brahma]. According to another version, the universe vanishes in the [avyakta], primary germ of Nature, and at the dawn of the succeeding yuga, God [brahma] sets out on his appointed task of moulding out the universe,-kalpayati-in the same pattern isotropically and homogeneously as it appeared in the previous yuga. This course of cosmic cycle, [Brahmachakra], involving visrsti and [pralaya], i.e., the task of bringing out (the Universe) in the manifest form as also of dissolving and merging it in the [avyakta], invisible primordial Prakrti, is controlled and regulated by the allpowerful Rita, the great Cosmic Order, under the direct supervision of the Supreme Being. All beings, living and dead, the planets and heavenly luminaries and everything in this visible universe, as well as in the invisible, above and beyond, are covered by the [mahad-avyakta], the great immesurable [akasha] and function as ordained at the bidding of Rita, the great cosmic force. Purusha, the Supreme Being, who pervades the entire universe including the unmanifest, is the only unchaging and unchangeable principle that passes at the same time above the [mahad]-[avyakta], -[sa] [bhumim] [Vishvato] [vrtva] ['ty] [atisthad] [dashangulam] as described by the Vedic seer [Narayana]. Everythings is bound by Rita, the great Cosmic Order, and this great Rita, emanates from Purusha, the indescribable Supreme Being, [yalo] [vaco] [nivartante] as said in the Veda. This, in brief, is the concept of creation as reflected in the Veda. [Prajapati], or God [Brahma], is only an agent performing his duties as assigned to him by Rita. The cosmic events, even Gid [Brahma], cannot change or suspend. Later, however, in the post-Vedic literature this cosmic function was conceded to [Kala-chakra]. Bhagavan Shri Krishna refers to this cosmic force when he says [Kalah] [kolayatam] [aham]. The Vedic pantheon, as well as the [Puranic] deities, including the triad of [Brahma], [Vishnu] and [Maheshwara] , are all subject to this cosmic force and bound by time and space. The [yajnopavita], that these deities are invested with, clearly denotes that they have not transcended the realm governed by the three gunas, and speaks for their limited power, and the obvious subordinate position that they hold in the great cosmic hierarchy. The later sectarian forces with their innate narrow vision incapable of seeing beyond the Puranic deities, attempted to misinterpret the great Vedic tradition. The cosmic evolution (resulting in the manifestation and dissoultion of the universe) is known as [Visrti] and [Pralaya]; the former literally means throwing out or bringing into manifestation, and the latter, vanishing completely in the [mahad] [avyakta], the great invisible [Prakrti], with out referred to above, the universe is created at the dawn of eachkalpa in the same old mould--[Suryacandramasau] [dhata] [yatha]-[Purvam] [akalpayat/divam] [ca] [prthivim] [cantariksam] [atho] [syah].- as we see it today but the changes, --vagaries and differences, if any, reflected in the universe which add beauty to the otherwise monotonous creation, --are confined to individual souls living in any form as a consequence of their past multifarious Karma, their [Karmavipaka]. The Veda, representing Shabda--brahma (or Nada-brahma) disappears at the end of each kalpa and the sages of yore at the dawn of kalpa, by performing tapas, penance and meditation, acquire the entire range of literature, Vedic and allied, including the epics and Puranas, through the grace of God Brahma. The early hour of the morning is called [Brahmamuhurta] or [Brahma]-[Kala], Brahma-time, the most congenial to meditation when a Sadhaka can remain fully engaged in his spiritual exercises undisturbed by the dormant evil forces operating in the atmosphere. The vibration, generated by the mantra recited in low but clear voice that emanates from his lips and brain, not only purifies his soul and surroundings but also gradually helps him raise himself higher and higher in his sadhana, till he reaches [nirvikalpa]-[samadhi]. The chanting of mantra and meditation are only means to an end, not an enditself. [Brahma]-[Kala] means the time when Brahman, meaning the Veda, was acquired by the Rishis at the early dawn of kalpa and that time is held by the Vedic tradition as the most auspicious for [Brahma]-[Yajna], for the realization of Brahman through [svadhyaya], study and research, and [tapasys], penance. According to our belief, true knowledge is eternal and the sacred scriptures in which it is preserved too are eternal. Therefore great care has been taken by our ancestors to preserve and hand down the Veda in its pristine purity, as it was revealed to the Rishis of yore. No one canalter the original phoneme, or syllable,-not even a [matra] of a syllable of a Vedic mantra. Any mistake, even the slightest, committed in this respect, would render the chat ineffective, and harm the chanter. That is why the [Shikshas], among the other Vedic ancillory works, that treat of Science of phonetics, stress the imperativeness of accurate pronounciation of Vedic texts, warns a reciter of disastrous consequences if a mantra is not correctly chanted. The Veda is unchangeable, -no one, however learned he might be, can meddle with or alter its form and style, or its diction. Therefore, the Veda is designated as [Shabda]-[Pradhana] as against the other literary works, which are [arthapradhana]. No one can change a word or replace it with its synonym in the Veda or attempt to correct it. It is to be recited accurately as it is, and as it has come down through the ages. The vibrational value of each [aksara] differs and even a single mistake committed in any form in the recitation of a mantra would, like a mechano -set wrongly handeld by an infant, fail to create the right cumulative vibration which alone can produce the desired effect. Therefore, the Veda is called [a-paurusheya], not the product of human mind. hence no human hand can disfigure it. The recitation of the mantras, accurately done to the last letter, generates a cumulative force known as adrishta, meaning a unique force, which did not exist before; which, with cumulative effect, goes to the credit of an individual when it is done by a single reciter with a limited objective; to the credit of the community when it is done by an assembly of selfless reciters keeping the entire world in view with the only aim of the welfare of all-[lokah] [samastah] [sukhino] [bhavantu]. The [sadhakas] who have accumulated and conserved this energy by reciting the [Bijamantras] and constant yogic practices can display miracles but a [sadhaka] who is in the ascendant to the higherspiritual plane will hardly think of using the magnetic force acquired by him for evanescent gain or ephemeral achievement, unless of course, the occasion warrants and justifies such a sacrifice. The languages of the Veda greatly differs from that of classical literature, and the knowledge, one eagerly seeks therein is often hidden in cryptic and symbolical expressions not easily understandable by all. The rituals performed in sacrifices and domestic ceremonies, obligatory, occasional, or optional, are often suggestive and provide clues to their real significance and guide oen, who is in quest of truth, in the right direction. But many of the rites in the domain of [karmakanda] are meant only to increase one's insatiable appetite for higher living,-for luxury and worldly comfort, and for ephemeral achievement. They are performed to attain Svarga after death, a temporary haven of rest, or sojourn to heaven in order to enjoy all luxuries of life. A sadhaka in his long journey to the higher spiritual plane does not lose his way at the crossroads where the [karmakanda] and the [jnanakanda] meet and bifurcate in different directions never to meet again. He continues his journey resisting al temptations on the way; through [jnana] [marga] he tries to reach and merge in the Eternal Avyakta that passes beyond the manufest and unmanifest ever-changing Universe. A [Brahmacharin], a student of the Veda, a seeker of eternal knowledge, sharpens his intelligence and widens anddeepens his knowledge of the Veda by extending the area of his study to the wider range of Vedic ancillary works as well. In fact the study of ancillary works is obligatory for all students of the Veda. He broadens the horizon of his knowledge of Vedic tradition by reading the epics and [Puranas] seeeking answer to the impregnable knotty vedic riddles, seemingly easily understandable but really beyond the reach of novices, and experimenting with them on the basis of his own experience and intuition. This course of study normally extends over 12 years and by this time an initiated student, guided by his perceptor, would be able to decide his future path, i.e., whether to return to worldly life or pursue his study further in order to equip himself for the long journey in quest of the Ultimate Truth. THE AGE OF THE VEDA To begin with I must say it is indeed impossible to determine even the approximate age of the Veda. It is an admitted fact that the opinion even of the best scholars in thi sline differ not to the extent of centuries but to the extent of thousands ofyears, with regard to the Vedas, particularly the Rigveda, the oldest book, in this enormous mass of literature. On astronomical calculations based on the data collected from the [Brahmanas], Jacobi in Germany places "the beginning of the period of civilization as the mature, perhaps even late production of which the songs of the Rigveda have come down to us" at about 4500 B.C. But Lokamanya Tilak imprisoned in Mandalay, Burma, at that time, simultaneously and independently of Jacobi, again on astronomical data, but by a different way, came to the conclusion that some of the Vedic texts go back to the year 6000 B.C. The historians frankly admit that it is very difficult to fix even approximately, the date of the Vedas. The chronology of the History of the vast literature is shrouded in turly terrifying darkness and most of the riddles, the historians are confronted with in their search of truth in this respect will ever remain unsolved. On account of their great antiquity and also due to non-availability of dependable data, internal and external the attempts of the historians at fixing the date of the Vedas have so far failed miserably. their claims based on hypothesis have proved misleading, like the shifting sanddunes in an expansive desert. It has been acknowledged by the historians that "for the oldes period of Indian literary history we can give no dates". In this connection the statement of Whitney, a great American Indologist, is worth quoting; he said:"All dates given in Indian history are pins set up to be bowled down again". It has so far been possible to fix with some certainty only the relativechronology, on the strength of exclusively linguistic evidence. The Rigveda, which is admittedly the oldest [Samhita], has in some places yielded to the pressure of the grammarians as it is evident from the un-Rigvedic euphonic combinations and usages not common in the [Samhita]. "Even to-day the views of the most important investigators with regard to the age of the most important literray works differ not indeed by years and decades but by whole centuries, if not even by one or two thousand years". The eternal truth transcends time and space, [desha] and [kala], as we say, and the Vedas are the literary records of this eternal truth. That is all and that is enough in our present context. INFLUENCE OF THE VEDAS ON OUR LIFE The life of a Hindu, from the date of conceeption in his mother's womb till his death, is pervaded by religious practices and rituals. The religious life of a Hindu is divided into four stages of [Brahmacharya], [Garhasthya], [Vanaprastha] and [Samnyasa]. His existence, mundane and spiritual, is intimately permeated by the religious institutions and practices to an extent unknown elsewhwere. we must say that "now where else is the texture of life so much impregnated with religious convictions and practices" as in Hinduism. The manuals of rituals, composed in the form of [Sutras], lay down the rules and procedures for the performance of sacrificial rites and religious ceremonies which are classified into two broad categories, viz., [Shrauta], the Vedic, and [Grhya], the domestic. They are systematically explained in the manuals compiled for the purpose by the Rishis. The Shrauta manuals deal with the sacrificial formulas, while the Grhya manuals treat of the domestic rites. Among these rites of both kinds some are obligatory, some are occasional and some are optional. The domestic rites, known as [samskaras], which may be called sacraments in English, are oriented towards the process of gradual self-development, [atma]-[vikasa], full growth of the personality innate in a man. They are performed for the purificationof body and soul and their precedure is often suggestive of their real meaning replete with expressive symbols. Appropriate mantras selected from the [Samhitas] are recited by the priests in the course of the performances of these [samskaras]. The sacrificial institutions have now nearly become extinct. Yet there may be a few elderly persons still living in some families who can perform some of the less complicated sacrifices, but after one or two generations the Vedic sacrifices will remain absolutely things of the past. They are elaborately described in the shrauta manuals and as time passes they will not, for want of practical knowledge, be clearly understood by many and also no qualified persons to perform these complicated sacrificeswould be found. While the domestic ceremonies are obligatory for evey Hindu, most of the sacrificial ceremonies are optional or occasional, often aimed at promoting a comfortable and Iuxurious life in the world beyond. These ceremonies are elaborate, complicated and quite expensive. A [sadhaka], whose ultimate goal is [moksa], the final emancipation, turns his back on the sacrificial institutions with indifference and aversion, for the reason that they are performed for a sojourn in heaven from where he has to come back to this world to subject himself again to the sufferings and miseries innate in the cycle of birth and death, [Janma]-[mrtyu]-[vyadhi], as said in the Bhagavad [Gita]. Of the two paths of [Karma] and [Jnana] the former is described by the [Brahmanas] and the latter by the [Aranyakas] and the Upanishads. These two distinct paths preaching [pravritti] and [nivritti] thus go back to the Vedas. Their ultimate aim is the same, the liberation of the sould from the chain of birth and death and its ultimate merger in the great unchanging and unchangeable [Avyakta], the Supreme Brahman, described later in the Vedanta philosophy as anirvacamya ( indescribable) nirguna (devoid of all qualities) and nirakara (formless). From the above brief description, we may realize the extent of influence exerted by the Veda over the life and outlook of the people of this sub-continent, from times immemorial continuously. Moreover, in ancient times, it reached far beyond the frontiers of greater India, from Tibet to Japan in the North, from Shri Lanka to the Islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans in the South, and in the West it can be traced upto Eastern Turuisthan. Among these countries, it may be noted, Thailand has preserved some of the ancient Vedic mantras, which, however, are not found in the Vedic Samhitas available to us in India today. Speaking about the extent of influence of ancient Indian literature over the neighbouring land, Winternitz, the great Ferman Indologist, observes "...the influence which this literature already in ancient times, exerted over the mental life of other nations, reaches far beyond the boundaries of India to further India to Tibet as far as China, Japan and Korea, and in the South over Ceylon and Malayasian peninsula far away, over the Islands of the Indian manuscripts have been found. Speaking further about the antiquity of Indian literature and its influence over the European culture he continues. "But if we wish to learn to understand the beginning of our culture, if we wish to understand the oldest Indo-European culture we must fo to India, where the oldest literature of an Indo-European people is preserved. For whatever view we may adopt on the problem of antiquity of Indian literature we can safely say that the oldest monument of the Indians is at the same time the oldest monument of Indo-European literature which we possess". METHOD OF STUDY Since the Vedas, as said earlier, were considered as divine revelations, strict care was taken by our ancestors to avoid every possible error while the Vedic texts were being orally transmitted to the successive generations. The oral transmission is found to be the best method of preservation of the original text in it pristine purity, exactly as it was when the Vedas were composed by the Vedic Rishis in ancient times. The practice of copying and recopying of the manuscripts which was followed later was found in its process prone to scribal errors and interpolations. In the enormous mass of Vedic literature consisting of over 100 books the variants ar efar and few and in the whole of the Rigveda, the oldest among the Vedas, consisting of over 10,000 verses hardly any error or variant is traced. The Brahmanas and the Vedic ancillary works, mainly Shilsha and Pratishakhya, have made no less significant a contribution than the combined contribution of all other technical works for the preservation of the purity of the Vedic texts. Teh text of the Rigveda since time immemorial, has come down through the ages word for word, syllable for syllable, accent for accent exactly as it was sung by the Vedic Rishis, in ancient times form the date it was composed. A pupil sitting by the side of the teacher would repeat the text with meticulous care and commit it to his memory. The oral transmission and memorization of the vast bulk of literature, secular and religious, remained a mode of study for many centuries, even after the art of writing was introduced in India. even to-day in the traditional Pathashaslas where the old order is still preserved, even though the books are kept in fornt just as a means to check the possible human error, the pupils repeat after the teacher and commit the entire text to memory without errors. A scholar who has gone through this system of education at an early age can repeat any text he studied without any error, and also state the references with accuracy, the chapter and the number of the verse or the sutra in teh texts, from which it was cited. In this connection I may mention the name of Dr. Sripada Lakshmana Athalekar Shastri, a Sanskrit Scholar, well-versed in Vyakarana working at the Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala, Poona, who can recite the entire Astadhyayi of Panini consisting of 3942 sutras, forward and backward and also from any point of the text. He can accurately say how many times a given word occurs in the Astadhyayi citing the exact sutras and their serial numbers and the chapter where they occur. The teams of priests representing the three Vedas participating in sacrifices have to recite the Vedic text presribed for hours together without stop in the course of performance of various rites in sacrificial sessions. One would simply feel highly elevated and excited of one could listen with attention to the loud Vedic-recitation vibrating the entire atmosphere, with out break and stop and without a single error in articulation, in pronunciation, in accentuation and in the order of verses recited, -all at the appropriate time at the bidding of the Adhvaryu, the chief priest. I have had this exhilarating experience in a sacrificial session, called Agnichayana, lasting 12 days performed by the Nambudiri Brahmins at Panjal, near Palghat in Kerala in 1975. This method of learning the sacred text is followed in the Buddhist monasteries where the young student monks sit in line with the manuscripts of Tripitaka kept in front on saffron cloth spread before them and the teacher monk sitting at the head readsthe text loud and the students repeat. A satire upon this method of recitation of the sacred texts is found in the Rigveda where the Brahmins reciting Vedas are compared to frogs which croak after the head frog sitting in line on the bank of a lake orriver in rainly season. In spite of the strict observance of the rules for the preservation of the accuracy of the Vedic text, we can still see some subtle alterations that have been made in the process of time in the text of the Vedas, e.g. in the Rigveda we come across someof the phonemes not common in the Rigvedic language, euphonic combinations that did not exist in the original text and moreover the Prakrit words in place of Sanskrit words that have silently infiltrated into the Vedic text. Tradition has accepted all these changes without realizing that they have stealthily infiltrated into the text in the course of transmission of the original text. But someof these altered words which are seen in the Rigveda, are found in their correct original forms in the Yajurveda and other vedic texts. it must be noted in this connection that wherever euphonic combination has taken place within a word or immediately preceding and following words in a Pada, the meter at once becomes defective, deficient by one or more syllables. To cite just one example, we may refer tothe first pada of [Gayatri] which has today only 7 syllables instead of the usual 8 as a consequence of internal [Sandhi] that has taken place in the word [Varenyam]. To avoid this possible error at the time of prayer, we are asked to pronounce [varenyam] correctly as [vareniam], without the internal [sandhi], [euphodic] collition. RECITATION The Vedic mantras are distinguished by the pitches of accentuation. They are characterised by three accents, viz.,[ udatta,] the acute accent, [anudatta] the grave, and svarita, the circumflex. Among these the [udatta] is the most important accent having many implications affecting morphology, semantics and even the form and the gender of a word. Normally [udatta] is preceded by [ anudatta]and followed by [svarita] in a word. But in the [samhita-patha], slight changes may take place depending onthe position of the [udatta] in the following and preceding words. In the course of centuries slight changes have taken place in the pronunciation of the [udatta] and the [svarita] in the Vedic text. The [udatta], the accute accent, is to be uttered according to the rule with high pitch and the [anudatta], the grave accent, with low, while the [svarita] stands in between nego tiating the two tones, high and low. But in the present day's recitation the [udatta] is not at all discernible-not easily recognisable when the Veda is recited. The [anudatta] is the only accent which has not changed its pitch and the [svarita] has usurped the pronunciation of the [udatta]. In the written Vedic text the [anudatta] is marked with horixonal stroke and the [svarita] with the vertical, while the [udatta] is left unmarked. In the shatapatha Brahmana only the [udatta] is marked and also uttered accurately with high pitch as it was done in hoary antiquity. While the modes of recitation of the Rigveda and the Yajurveda, as also of the Atharvana Veda in the South, are not much different, the style of recitation of the Shukla Yajurveda of the Madhyandina recension differs greatly from them. Again, the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala have preserved a unique of Vedic recitation in which, while uttering a vowel, [anuswara] or [visarga] of the last syllable of a verse, the voice is raised twice and then suddenly dropped with a jerk. Similarly the samagana too is chanted by the Nambudiries in a style peculiar to themselves. ------------------------------------------------------ DETERIORATION OF PRONUNCIATION ------------------------------------------------------- Inspite of all the care taken to preserve the Vedic recitation in its pristine purity, in the course of time, provincialism has infiltrated into our pronunciation which can be perceived by a trained Vedic scholar. A Nambudiri Brahmin pronounces the word [agnim] as [aknim], [yajnasya] as [yacnasya] and the dental stop t, when not followed by a vowel as l,e.g. [Pracodayat, is uttered as [Pracodayal], when a Nambudiri recites the Gayatri mantra. Similarly the followere of the Shukla Yajurveda in the North pronounce the retrodlex [sa as kha]. e.g. [purusa] as [purukha]. The word [caru] in the Maitrayani Samhita that is prevalent in Nasik, Nagpur and interior Maharashtra, has been replaced with [tsaru] in the text, due to phonetic contamination. In Marathi [Ca] is prononunced as [tsa] like Z in German. Similarly Ida, the [nidhana], in samagana is uttered as I!a by the followers of the Jaiminiya Shakha in Tamilnad. The phoneme la is pronounced as Dravidian and not found in Sanskrit at all. The Sadvimsha-Brahmana taking cognition of this trend of provincialization of pronunciation of the Vedic text says: [yajno va atha jajna ity ahuh] i.e., some pronounce, [yajna as jajna]. This is obviously a reference to the pronounciation of this letter prevalent in North-East India, -Orissa, Bihar, Bengal and Assam. The Shatapatha Brahmana tells us that the words [dyauh] and [svah] contain two syllables each and not one and hence should be suttered accordingly as [diyauh] and [suvah] respectively. INTERPRETATION It is very difficult to understand and interpret the Veda to our satisfaction because of its great antiquity, the archaic and obsolete vocabulary and the grammatical peculiarities of its language, in addition to its contents and cultural background ofa remote age. Sayana, the great Vedic scholar, inspired by his elder brother [Madhavacharya], under the patronage of King Bukka of Vijayanagar has interpreted all the four Vedas and many of the [Brahmanas] and [Aranyakas]. He has dealt with the Vedic morphology, syntax, semantics, accentography, etymology, etc., with citations from authorities like [Panini], [Yaska] and others in support of his explanation so thoroughly that his commendtary looks like a modern linguistic laboratory established for the analysis of Vedic vocables, syntax, etc., on a sound scientific line, of course within the limitations of the knowledge and training available to him at that time. In this connection [Sayana] might have erred here and there but it is certainly excuseable if we look back at the time when he was born and the condition and level of knowledge of linguistic Science that prevailed in his time. But for this great service rendered by [Sayana] to our great extent sealed books to posterity. The Vedic world always remembers its indebtedness to [Sayana] with gratitude. But the region known as Andhra Karnataka, where he was born, lived and flourished, seems to have long forgotten this great Vedic scholar. [Sayana] was a [Mimamsaka] and hence he sometimes views the Vedas from that angle with a commitment. This sometimes led him astray in some places when he dealt with the mantras, particularly those of the Rigveda and the Atharva Veda which are the source material for the earliest philosophical theories and esoteric doctine. As regards the Yajuveda and the [Samaveda] which were edited and arranged strictly to suit the order of sacrificial procedures, [Sayana] may be perfectly right and his commentary on the Yajurveda particularly, is of very great help to the students of sacrificial rites. It must be pointed out in this connection, that no one can think of learning the Vedas today without reading and understanding his commentary. [Sayana] has enriched his explanation of Vedic texts with his thorough knowledge of complicated and very difficult sacrificial procedures. His sound scholarship of all the four Vedas, his intimate familiarity with the Shrauta and Grihya rites and his erudition of [Vyakarana] and [Mimamsa] together with his unique retentive power, have rendered his commendtary more authentic and scholarly than any other commendtary available to us to-day. Those of the Vedic [Samhitas], which it may be noted, were not interpreted by [Syana], have remained to a very great extent impregnable and are difficult to understand despite all the reference works and accumulated researches done in the field that are at our disposal to-day. Fromthis, one can realise the importance of the contribution of [Sayana] to the Vedic learning. [Yaska], the earliest interpreter of the Veda, answering the critics of his time who said the Vedas were incomprehendible and not worth interpreting, says. "Itis not the fault of the beam if the blindman does not see it". Similarly it is not the fault of the Veda if the ill-read and ignorant people don't understand it. [Sayaba's] learned commendtary stands as an apt answer to these critics. The critical study of the Veda was first started by the Westerners in the first half of the 19th century. In the begining, they clearly followed [Sayana] on the assumption that a literature which has been tradtionally handed down through centuries could be understoood better from the traditional scholars i.e, scholiasts, -[Yaska], [Sayana] and others. The early translations were, therefore, mainly based on the traditional commendtaries on the Vedas. However, after some time, with the progress of reseach in comparative grammar, Indo-European philosogy and world culture, scholars began to think that the Vedas, particularly the Rigveda, which is the oldest written literary document of the Indo-European family, could not be properly understood of theywere studied in isolation. The Vedas have preserved many archaic forms and syntatical structures (style) besides an ancient faith in mythology which can be traced back to the Indo-European period. Therefore, to understand the language of the Veda correctly, one must have a sound knowledge of the comparative grammar of the ancient European languages and mythology. This chool of thought did not give much credence to [Sayana's] commendtary or Indian traditional scholarship on the ground that tradition had long been dead in India and that they could not depend much on [Sayana] of the 14th century to understand the Veda which was composed several centuries before Christ in an altogether different setup, against a totally dissimilar geographical and cultural back-ground. These scholars stuck to a new line shorn of traditional commendtary and expositions and their derivations and explanations of some of the archaic terms and Vedic idioms and phrases sounded as fanciful as some of those by [Yaska] or of[Sayana]. This created some absurdities and difficulties in understanding the true meaning of this ancient text of great antiquity. How ever, with intensified research of generations of scholars in this field, a new schools emerged which took to the safe middle path, basing their critical studies not only on linguistics but also on the grammatical texts such as the Nirukta, the Pratishakhya and Panini as well as the ancilliarly Vedic literature. It was before long realised that the study of the Indo-European philology and comparative grammar is not complete without the knowledge of Sanskrit, Vedic and classical. The modern research in the Vedic field is thus based on broad scientific lines without neglecting the studtural backbone of the language, i.e., the grammar of Panini, and the commentariesof the scholiasts. This methodical study gives little scope for fanciful derivations and interpretations. 4 RISHIS The great Vedic tradition that came down through the [Parampara] of Rishis and the [Sampradaya] i.e., the teachings of the Vedas pertaining to both ritual and spiritual domains was faithfully transmitted from one teacher to another for thousands of years. This system of transmission of knowledge from one teacher to another was continued for ages establishing a recognised line of teachers who faithfully preserved and transmitted the tradition to posterity. The lineage of Rishis recorded in the Brahmanas generally commences with the name of the last person, known or recorded in the line and then it goes upward in the ascending order until it reaches [Brahma] [Svayambhu], [Brahma] the self-born, who at the beginning of each kalpa mentally transmitts the eternal knowledge preserved in the great Vedic tradition extending from Vedas through the epics and [Puranas] to the great Rishis, who had been performing severe penance to acquire the eternal knowledge from him. In this lineage all except the five mentioned below were mortals, long born and dead, known only by names, but who had the privilege at that time of availing themselves of the unique opprtuntiy of attaining immortality through [sadhana], since they, among others, formed the unbreakable link in the electro magnetic line transmitting the ancient eternal wisdom. [Prajapati], Mrityu, [Vayu], Indra and Agni were the five divinities listed in the lineage after [Brahma] through whom the electro-magnetic line of tradition passed. These divinities too, it must be noted, like others excepts [Brahma], were originally born mortals, but later achieved immortality through [tapasya], penance and meditation. It is interesting to note in this connection that [Prajapati], the first creator, heads the list and Mrityu, the god of death, later known as Yama, who imparted the knowledge of secret doctrine to Nachiketas, immediately follows in the list. These lists with some variations are found recorded in many of the [Brahmanas]. They consist of the names of Rishis and [Acharayas], many of whom were utterly unknow to us before and provide us for the first time a glimpse into the obscure history of a far removed age when the Rishis and [Acharyas] propagated the Vedic tradition in greater India. The great heritage of eternal wisdom has been preserved in the ancient texts known as the Veda, which means a book of knowledge or knowledge itself acquired by the ancient Rishis through their inner vision with the divine grace of [Brahma] [Svayambhu]. These Rishis were the fiorst seekers and discouverers of eternal truth hidden in Mahad Avyakta on the eve of the great Pralaya. The names of these Rishis were not listed in the lineage recorded in the [Brahmanas] but are found recorded in the [Anukramanis] of each Veda, along with teh metre and the deity of each verse or [sukta] they had composed. The designation Rishi, from the [Sutra] period onward, perhaps even earlier, began to be loosely used meaning a great learned scholar and another of works of authority in the area of the Vedic ancillaries. The personages were sages, no doubt, but not necessarily seers. But a Vedic Rishi was both a sage and a seer. A [Sadhaka] inspired with a desire to discover the ultimate Truth achieve the status of a sage through the knowledge and wisdom that he gains by the study of scriptures, purity of life, observance of strict discipline and unfailing dedication to the cause of Vedic tradtion. He attains the second stage in his spiritual experience, i.e., the status of a seer, through his persistent [sadhana], pernance and meditation, realising the oneness of the cosmos in his spiritual experiments, and identifying himself with the universal soul. A [sadhaka], who reaches this covetable status in his spiritual experience, by raising himself to teh higher plane, can perceive happenings beyond, transcending time and space. He is, therefore, righty called [tri-kala-jna], omniscient. Knower of past, present and furture, and also [atindriyartha-darshin], one who can visualize things which are beyond the cognizance of senses. These Rishis, while in trance, being in complete tranquility, from the height of their spiritual experiments pour out their experiences and discoveries, out of the depth of their heart, in the form of divine songs and they are recorded in the sacred texts. These texts are composed in a language understood by none but the adepts who are the masters of the esoteric doctrine. In the language of the Veda these mystics who can interpret the sacred texts and explain the secrets concealed in seemingly easy but actually cryptic and terse expressions replete with symbolism, are know as Kavis, mystic poets. The scholiasts have rightly explained the word Kavi as [Kranta-Prajna] and also as [Kranta-darshin], intelligence and vision that transcend time and space, in short, the superhumans gifted with inmost vision and metaphysical insight. The language of the mystics is the language of the gods as the Vedas say, in which the eternal truth is concealed and not directly expressed. The supreme secret, [uttamam] [rahasyam], as the Bhagavad Gita calls this doctrine, is expressed in the Vedas in riddles, and in the dialogues of the ancient Rishis with their disciples and this truth is conveyed sometimes through symbols and sometimes simply through silence and often through paradox. The Veda clearly informs us that the Rishis of the past who had attained godhood through mystic sacrifices continued their march forward towards the still higher plane after discouvering the path of their predecessors deeply buried in the sands of time, and closely following it with firm determination in their long journey reached their distination, their ultimate goal, never to return again-[yat Prapya na nivartante tad dharma paramam mama]-as said in the Bhagavad Gita. Thus this great ancient tradition arises as if from nowhere, with the [sadhakas], from time to time as warranted giving directions to teh seekers of truth whenever it is sought. They are known in the Vedas, according to teh grade of thrispiritual development as [Manushyah Rshayah], and [Devah] or [Daivyah Rishayah] meaning Rishis of human origin and Rishis of divine origin, respectively. ------------------------ THE SAMHITAS ------------------------ These sacred texts, revealed to the adepts of the hoary antiquity, were carefully preseved by the lime of faithful disciples and later methodically compiled by the Rishis in the form of the [Samhitas]. These [Samhitas], the books of universal knowledge, are classified into three categories, viz., 1. Deva-[Samhita], that consists of entirely the most secret teachings, 2. Asura-[Samhita], that consists of secular knowledge, -arts, science and technology, and 3. Rishi-[Samhita], that consists of both the secret teachings as well as the secular knowledge, i.e., Para and Apara Vidyas. Among these three, it may be noted, the Deva-[Samhita] has been kept most secret and guarded by the [Mahatmas], who after performing the great mustic sacrifice within themselves have attained goodhood and dwell in [Naka], the higher plane of absolute bliss along with the [Sadhyas] of their like of the preceeeding ages. The scriptural injuction about the transmission of the supreme secret concealed in the Deva-[Samhita] to any but to the disciplinal line is very clear and emphatic. It observes that the secret heritage preserved in this [Samhita] should under no circumstances and at no event, be transmitted to an undeserving disciple who has no regard whatsoever for the [Brahma-prishtha], the great Vedic heritage. This great tradition came down in regular succession among the royal sages for a longtime in the past but was later lost for want of worthy successors. [Bhagavan] Shri Krishna calls this secret doctrine as imperishable yoga and also [uttamam rahasyam], supreme secret, which he passes on to Arjuna, his faithful devotee and friend and tells him at the end of the long dialogue: "The secret teaching shouls never be imparted to a person who is devoid of austerities, nor to one who is without devotion, nor even to him who is unwilling to hear, and again to him who speaks ill of me". 1. The [Deva-Samhita], dealing with the [Brahma-Vidya], i.e., the discipline pertaining to [Atman] and [Paramatman], and the spiritual experiments that will lead one ultimately to [Para Shanti], was always studied in seclusion in the most guarded secret places, in the tapovanas or mentally transmitted to the selective initiated chelas, who themselves were already on the advanced stage of spiritual experiments. This Samihita has, therefore, been designated as [Sarva-Paroksa], not accessible or perceptible to any but to the disciples chosen on strict spiritual test. This knowledge, the Vedas say, must be communicated only in secret where one can feel the revibration of the glory and there too only to those who have attained the shining divine power through their [Sadhana]. 2. The [Asura-Samhita] consisting of all branches of worldly knowledge, including arts, and science, pure and applied, is designated as [Sarva-Pratyaksha], accessible to all who are interested in the subject. There are several [Sub-samhitas under thismajor samhita covering different areas of disciplines, which are studied for the betterment of society, for worldly prosperity. Each one of these [samhitas] treats the subject it deals with exhaustively, e.g. medicine, astronomy, [Agamas] (temple art) etc., and they are mostly authored by single individuals unlike the Vedic [samhitas]. 3. The [Rishi-Samhita] incorporates the thoughts beloging to the realms, both higher and lower, and hence it is designated as [Pratyaksha-Paroksha], partly esoteric and partly otherwie. The entire range of Vedic literature known as such today comes under the domain of this [Samhita]. For instance, the Rigveda couvers, to a great, extent, the vast area of metaphysics and mysticism preaching the oneness of the cosmos. Its so called Nature deities, the deities presiding over the cosmic phenomena, and the divine power reflected in diverse forms, are all in fine the true manifestations of the great Reality. The Rishis while singing the glory of great Nature, the manifest cosmos, appearing in various forms in the vast universe emphatically proclaim time and again that they are all but the manifestations of that great Eternal [Avyakta]. Again the Yajurveda, though it predominantly deals with ritual formulas and procedures eclipsing temporarily the main theme of [Paravidya], ultimately takes to the path of [Satya], the Ultimate Reality. The [Samaveda], comprising innumerable melodies of great mystic potence which are sung in solemn sacrifices, preaches the doctrine of [Nada] Brahman, from which the universe is said to have evolved and into which itultimately merges in the course of the great cosmic cycle. In this process of evolution it attributes all importance to Omkara, the great mystic syllable, and to the [Gayatra][Saman], the most mysterious melody. The Atharvaveda, while treating the wordly topics ranging from useful arts and sciences to witchcraft, excels in its exposition of mysticism and philosophy. Thus these four Vedic [Samhitas] treating [para] and [apara] [vidyas], higher and lower knowledge, with equal importance, constitute the [Rishi-Samhita]. It may be noted that the hymns and verses comopsed by the various Rishis were complied and brought together in the form of these four [Samhitas], keeping in view the main purpose for which they were compiled,i.e., the employnment of the Mantras belonging to the respective [Samhitas] in relevant sacrificial rites, and that the Rishis, [Acharyas] and [Pravachanakaras ]of respective lineages executed the great task of propagation of the Veidc tradition belonging to various Veidc schools to posterity. ----------------------- RISHI - VAMSHA ----------------------- The lineage of Rishis is like the eternal Ashvattha tree described in the [Bhagavad Gita], haivng it root or origin in [Brahma Svayambhu] Himself. The names of the Rishis are listed in the ascending order beginning with the last traceable Rishi in theline and then going up and ending in Brahman. In the lists recorded in the [Brahmanas] upto a certain point the divinities, such as Indra, Agni, Savith, Parameshthin and [Prajapati] in some, and Agni, Indra, [Vayu], Mrityu and [Prajapati] in some others, form the links inthe long line of heritage in ascending order. In these lists the last divinity i.e., Indra or Agni as the case may be, transmits the tradition to Kashyapa, a semi-mythical personality. This celebrated Rishi is also called [Prajapati], being the progenitor of gods, demons, men, beasts, serpents, reptiles and birds, nymphs of lunar constellation, and all kinds of living beings From this great sage two lines of Rishis descended, one is recorded in the [Brahmanas], but the other through which the most guarded esoteric doctrine was transmitted, is not. This secret line of succession passes from kashyapa to his son Vivasvat, the first royal sage born at the beginning of the great cosmic evolution. It came down through the family line, in regular succession passes from Kashyapa to his son Vivasvat, the first royal sage born at the beginning of the great cosmic evolution . It came down through the family line, in regular succession from father to son for a long time, but then the line was eventually broken when it reached certain point since no worthy successor was born in the family to whom the great tradition could be passed on. There are four or five lines of succession recorded in the [Brahmanas], (1) through which the [Sampradaya] in general was transmitted. This included the learning of the Vedas and Vedic ancillaries and the relevant ritual tradition of respective Vedic schools. (2) A line whihc preserved the tradition of immortal [Gayata-gana], and the secret of the mystical syllable Om, and the secret doctrine that has been conceled in the Vedic tradition by means of which [Prajapati], gods and Rishis of yore attained immortality (3) The lineage of Rishis who specialised in the formulas and procedures of the [yajnasamsthas], the elaborate Vedic rituals,(4) There are still more lines of succession of the Rishi briefly mentioned in the Brahmanas and the Vedic ancillaries which describe the special optional rites, that are performed through the desire for personal gains and material benefits. (5) Finally in the Rishi-tarpana belonging to respective Vedic schools we come across the lineage of Rishis and [Acharyas] through whom the tradtion of Vedic rites belonging to Shrauta and Grihya domains was transmitted. These rites are described in the [Sutra] and Smriti literature the Shrauta rites in the Shrautasutras and the domestic rites in the Grihya and Smriti literature. Among the Rishis and [Acharyas], it is interesting to note that there were teachers in this line belonging to all castes and even to the countries, beyond the [Aryavarth] like [Kamboja] and Madra. The Vamsha Brahmana of the [Samaveda] clearly mentions among others a Kshatriya by name [Arehanya], a Vaishya by name Brihaspati Gupta, a [Shudra] by name [Shaka Dasa], and lastly a person born of mixed caste by name Sankara-who were all the Rishis and [Acharyas] who propagated the Vedic tradition. Moreover there were a large number of women Rishis who were the seers of the Vedic verses and hymns and those who composed the [Saman] melodies. In the Rishi-tarpana belonging to the Rigvedic school among the Rishis three women Rishis figure prominently. They are [Gargi], [Badava]and [Sulabha] to whom the tarpana is offered is offered individually whereas in the case of the male Rishis it is done collectively. In the [Sama-tarpana] there are still a larger number of women Rishis to whom libation of water is offered by the followers of the [Samaveda]. In the list of Rishis recorded in the [Shatapatha Brahmana], after a few names, the Rishis in thelineage bear the matronymic names adding [putra], son, to the mother's name. The women Rishis rubbed shoulders with male Rishis, initiated students and imparted Vedic learning including [Brahmavidya] to the deserving disciples. Thus they took active part in this great task of perpetuating the Vedic tradition. A wife in this tradition enjoyed equal status with her husband, participated in the Vedic rites sitting by her husband. In this context the Vedas assert this point saying "Indeed wife is half of yourself, half of your own soul". Besides, we come across many Brahmavadinis in the later partof the Vedic literature, particularly in the [Aranyakas and Upanishads, which clearly proves that the area of [Brahmavidya] was never an exclusive preserve for men alone in Vedic India. 5 THE CHANDAS The metrical science (Chandas Shastra) is one of the six Vedic ancillaries (Vedangas),which a student of Veda must learn before he finishes his Brahmacharya in a Gurukala. The [Chandas-Shastra] is connected with the art of versification by regulating the number of syllables in a metre, which generally consists of three or four [Padas] with distinctly marked interval at teh end of the second [Pada] and thus forming two hemistichs or semistanzas of equal or unequal length. Prosody consists of a methodical study of the rules pertaining to the structure and formation of a language. Although it appears to be related to the outer form of a stanza, the Chandas, as far as a Vedic verse is concerned, like its Rishi and [Devata], goes deeper than its external appearance. The trio thus comprising Rishi, Chandas and Devata is intimately connected with a Vedic verse and provides guidelines for a [Sadhaka] to reach its intricate inner meaning. The word Chandas was derived from the root Chadi, meaning to cover, to please, to praise, to worship and, all these meaning collectively apply only to the metres of Vedic verses; and not to those generally used in classical literature. The metrical science defines the physical forms of metres in general, ie., the number of syllables and their measures, and the interval of [Padas], that constitute a metre. But a metre in our present context, which forms the integral part of a Vedic verse together with its Rishi and [Devata], goes beyond it sphysical appearance. These three are very important aspects which are intrinsically and inseparably associated with the serious study of a Vedic Mantra focussing and guiding the thoughts of a [Sadhaka] to its real and hidden implications. They constitute the keysto teh secret chamber of [Brahmavidya], providing guidelines for a serious reader of the Vedas, a [Brahmacharin], leading him to the right path in his quest of truth. Therefore, a careful reader should first study the chandas in which a particular verse has been composed, the Rishi who has composed that verse, and the [Devata] to whom that verse has been dedicated and then understand how far and to what extent these three innate aspects of a Vedic verseare intrinsically involved in realising its hidden meaning. Thus, Rishi, Chandas and [Devata] would always be helpful to a great extent to understand the real inner meaning of a verse or hymn-particularly [such] of those verses and hymns that are ridden with riddles and not easily explainable and those that deal with [Brahmavidya-Philosophy] and metaphysics. The Vedic Rishis, is must be understood, are always sympathetic towards the seekers of truth, and they have given helpful hints here and there in the Vedic texts itself to guide and lead them in the right direction. In the Vedas the metres are raised to the status of divinities and oblations are offered to them in sacrificial rites with exclamation of [Svaha-Kara], the word of invocation, as is done in the case of a Vedic deity when offerings are made in sacrificial fires. In the Deva-tarpana, it must be noted, the metres along with the gods are offered libation of water. The divine origin of the metres is clearly mentioned in the Vedas in various contexts. They are said to have been created by [Prajapati], along with the Vedic deities, whenPrajapati performed the first cosmic sacrifice. [Gayatri], along with Agni, came into being out of the cosmic sacrifice followed by other Vedic deities and metres, and then by the seven divine Rishis and humans in the process of creation. The Gayatri, the shortest among the Vedic metres with its three [Padas], which had originally only four syllables each, "holds the forefront of the sacrifices", as the Vedas say. Among the Vedic metres, [Gayatri] is the metre, which is regarded as the msot sacred and mysterious and also as the mother of all other metres,[gayatri chandasam mata]. [Gayatri] is referred to as the great Golden Bird, who, escorted by a female goat with a lighted torch, brought down the celestial Soma, the drink of immortality from the highest heaven at the bidding of Gods and Rishis. This mysterious soma was kept hidden ina formidable fort encircled by seven walls of leaping flames of perennial fire and protected by the armed celestical guards. Among the metres sent on this mission[Gayatri] alone could accomplish this most difficult task entrused to them successfully, Again this is the metre in which the great mysterious [Brihat saman] and the most sacred [Gayatri Mantra] are found listed among the [Vibhutis], the divine glories of the Supreme Spirit, manifested in various forms. [Prajapati], gods and the Rishis who were originally born mortals, attained immortality later by realizing the mysteries of th [Gayatra Saman], the secret melody composed in [Gayatri] metre. This [saman], when separated from its verse-text, i.e., from its gross form, attains its pure form, the state it is called [amrtam] [gayatram], immortal gayatra [saman], and it is in this pure and subtle form that a mystic sings the melodyin secret with all concentration to achieve immortality. This secret [saman] is known as [a-sharira-saman], as it is devoid of the obvious verse text, which is the body of a [saman] melody. The [Jaiminiya] Upanishad [Brahmana] dwells on the glory of the [atman] of the Samans, whereas the other [Brahmannas] of the [Samaveda] on the [sharira], the outer verbal frame. The Vedic metres as also the [padas and the syllables that constitute a Vedic metre, are all symbolical, when they are represented in the mantras, even as the Aksharas found in themeditates upon. The Vedic mantras will be of no consequence if repeated without the full knowledge of the significance of the metre in which if is composed, of the Rishi to whom it was revealed and the deity to whom it was dedicated. Therefore it is imperative that one who repeats the actual mantra and also must be aware of its correct employment in proper Vedic mantra, must utter the names of the trio consisting of chandas, Rishi and [Devata], before he repeats the actual mantra and also must be aware of its correct employment in Winternitz observes: "How much, in old Indian metres, everything depends on the number of syllables, is proved by the oft-recurring speculations, in the Brahmanas and Upanishads, on the mystical significance of the metres, where the mysticism of numbers comes into play, when, for example it is said, with strange logic: "The words [bhumi] (earth), antariksa (atmosphere) and dyu (sky) form eight syllables. a [Gayatri-Pada] consists of eight syllables. Therefore, he who knows the [Gayatri] gains the worlds". But that the metres play such a highly important part in the mysticism of ritual, that considered as divine beings.." He further continues "all this indicates the great age of these metres which were thought to have originated in times immemorial. Thus the age of the metres is also a proof of the age of the hymns themselves." 6 SAMSKARAS The [Samskaras] are the purificatory rites to be performed by a person to consecrate his body, [sthula] and [sukshma], the gross and the subtle, in order to enable him gradually to move forward step by step in the ladder of life to climb higher and higher, both wordly and spiritual. The [Samskaras] come under the domestic rites and they vary in number, from twelve to eighteen but sixteen among them ae more popular. In the Gautama-dharma-[sutra] this number is swollen to forty by adding some more [samskaras] and bringing the [Panca-mahayajnas] and the [yajna-samsthas] under this category. The ceremony begins with [garbhadhana], conception in the womb of mother and the [samskaras] are spread over one's whole life and beyond, that is, they cover even the funeral rites which last twelve days. During this interim period the departed soul in his astras body loaded with all the [vasanas] hanging on him, waits for direction to his next destination. All these [Samskaras], it may be noted, are the exercises for sanctifying a person's whole personality and making him fit for his long forward journey towards the goal of self realization:- ['Samskaraih samskrtah purvair uttarair anu-samskrtah nityam asta-gunair yukto brahmano brahma-laukikah/ brahmam padam avapnoti yasman na cyavate punah]. -------------------- UPANAYANA -------------------- Among the [Samskaras] many have become extinct today, and even the names of some of them have long been forgotten. But of all these [Samskaras the Upanayana was the most important [Samskara] of great significance since only after undergoing the Upanayana, the initiation ceremony, a boy is admitted into the Aryan society as a member sworn to preserve the [Sampradaya] that had come down through the [Parampara] of the sages of Vedic and pre-Vedic age and he becomes eligible to enter the second stage inhis lifei.e, [vivaha] and other [samskaras]. On completion of this ceremony which actually means leading near 'for initiation' a boy is admitted into Gurukula as a [Brahmachari], a regular student. A [gurukula] in olden times was located at the confluence of rivers, always regarded sacred, or in the valleys of mountains covered by thick forest called [Tapovana], a forest retreat for penance and meditation. The [Ashramas], located in the tapovanas were the resorts frequented by emperors, Rajarshis, humble [Brahmacharis], neophytes as well as by those who had reached the unscalable heights in their spiritual [sadhana], seeking guidance on abstruse philosophical pronlems, all seekers of Truth, the ultimate Reality, but in different traditions. India's great heritage which Bhagavan Shri Krishna calls eternal Yoga, was first preached by Vivasvan, the Sungod himself, to Manu and then it passed on through generations of [Prajapatis] to posterity. That ancient tradition, which has come down through the lineage of divinities and great adepts is rightly called [Raja] Yoga, for, this was once the secret preserve of [Rajarhis], the great royal sages. There is another lineage, but of Brahma-Rishis, the live magnetic line of ancient immortal wisdom which has been recorded in teh [Brahmanas] and other ancient texts. This lineage of Rishis originated from [Brahma] himself, who at the beginning of each Kalpa, passes on the great Vedic tradition through the sages, the giants of wisdom of the past, to generations of disciples. The [Ashramas] located in Tapovanas were the actual confluence of these two paralled streams, the strams of [Mandakini]. the celestial Ganga, and Brahmi, the abstract goddes of learning, that came down from the height of the Himalayas, the resort of the Mahatmas of Hindu tradition. The thatched huts of teh sages were the great centras of learning, where the Vedas and [Brahmanas], [Aranyakas] and Upanishads and the scriptures were composed and studied in ancient times. Our culture, our philosophy, our traditions originated in these humble hermitages located at the confluence of rivers in the heart of forest retreats, the Tapovanas. The Upanayana, according to teh rules, is to be performed when a boy reaches the age of eight and before he crosses his sixteenth year. If it is not performed between this period, a boy becomes unfit, not eligible, for Brahmopadesha. It is said in the [Dharma-Shastra] that if the [Upanayana] is not performed before the age of sixteen a boy becomes [Savitri-patita], fallen from the Brahmanic tradition, and unfit for admission into the society of [Aryas]. Such persons who were not initiated at the proper time are called [vratyas], fallen from the age old Vedic tradition. In such cases a [Prayaschitta] is performed by the boy and his father and then the investiture ceremony, a meaningless ritual is gone through. The Upanyana ceremony is called [vrata-bandha] by some, [savitri-vachana] by others,but is normally known as [mounjibandhana or brahmopadesha]. It may be noted in this connection that Brahma-(n) is a Vedic word meaning a mantra and in the present context it stands for the great [Gayatri mantra]. It is the father or [Acharya] who teaches a boy this mantra, initiates him into the secrets of [Brahma-vidya], and none else. It may be amusing to know that Brahma-Upadesha has been wrongly interpreted by some as the Upadesha, the initations given by god [Brahma] himself! It must be pointed out again that the great mantra popularly known as [Gayatri], after the metre in which it is composed is really called [Savitri] since it is dedicated to [Savita], the sun-god. This mantra is found in the third Mandala (III.62.10), of the Rigveda. In olden times only a student desirous of higher study was led by his father or relatives to an [Acharya], a reputed scholar known for purity of life, a person of very high moral calibre and deep learning, for being initiated and to be admitted into his [Gurukula]. After an oral test he admitted into the [Ashram], where he would live with the family of the [Acharya] till he completed his education. The course of study for each [shakha] of a Veda was of the duration of twelve years. Initiation is mainly to enable a person, man or woman, to acquire the means by which he can develop his inner personality to the full extent and to the right direction. With study of scriptures, strict observance of discipline and daily practice of yoga a Brahmachari fortifiles his inner personality against the formidable evil forces, the eternal enemy of a [sadhaka] and gradually eliminates the tendencies that would provoke the qualities of [rajas] and [tamas] lying dormant within. Living in the serence atmosphere replete with the vibrations of meditation and echoes and re-echoes of Vedic recitations, a Brahmachari widens his knowledge of [Brahmavidya] by the intensive study of scriptures under the guidance of his guru and by discussion and deliberation with his[Sabrahmacharis], classmates. Thus a favourable condition is generated for the growith of the [sattva] quality in a [sadhaka] when he reaches that stage of spiritual development in which [sattva] predominates. he then gradually riseshigher and higher on the spiritual plane by constant practice of [tapasya], penance and meditation, strict observance of physical and mental discipline, and leading a pure and detached life. ultimately he transcends all three gunas, loosening the bondage of his dehin. He now qualifies himself for promotion, for admission into the fold of [sadhakas] of higher fold. This most coveted stage in ones life could still remain a dream yet to be realised for many because of the heavy burden of accumulated [vasanas] of their past births. Every time they attempt to rise higher and higher in the spiritual realm the formidable [Skandhas] will not let them off. They will drag them down again and again. The Upanayana is the first step on this long journey towards the goal of self-realization. This [Samskara], it may be noted, is not by any means confined to man alone. A Hindu woman was deprived of this Vedic [samskara] by the degenerated society, not realising that it would consequently cause set-back to the progress of [sadhana] of a man. The entire community of [dvijas] have since been born of women deprived of this basic [samskara], which was a firm foundation for all other [samskaras]. The free flow of spiritual [Mandakin] was obstructed and the progress retarded by this act of visionless orthodoxy of Hindu society. ----------------------------------------------- YAJNOPAVITA - The Sacred Thread ----------------------------------------------- In olden times the [Yajinopavita was worn, as the word would indicate, on the occasion of performance of sacrifice by a yajamana. It was a kind of [uttariya] worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. [uttariya] actually means an upper garment worn at the time of religious ceremonies covering the upper body. Later, however, Yajnopavita] implied a sligtly different meaning. Today it stands for the sacred thread worn by the upper castes. It has unfortunately lost it original significance and has been reduced to a simple caste mark. The Yajnopavita hanging from the lst shoulder and passing under the right arm, constantly reminds a man that he is a bonded worker for an indefinite period and that he can free himself of this bondage made up of three [gunas] by discharging his dutiesto his ancestors, to the Rishis, and ultimately to teh gods. The [yajnopavita] consists of three cords and each cord is formed by twisting three threads into one. Actually it is made up one single cord only. At the one end of the cord of required length a loop will be formed through which the other end of the cord is pulled three times to form three lines of equal length and at the same time the cord is also passed fround the loop to ultimately form a knot at the centre. This knot is known as [Brahma-granthi], [Brahma-knot], indeed a very significant name. The [yajnopavita] represent the three threads twisted in the formation of each cord represent the three innate [gunas] with which a [dehin] i.e., an [atman] encased in teh astral body is firmly tied. Now the three threads in each cord represent the [gunas] that prevail in different ratios in each individual and each cord collectively stands for one guna each. Thus the three cords symbolize the three gunas, viz., [sattva], [rajas] and [tamas] in a person, man or woman. A person who has been initiated by his father or [Acharya] has to transcend these three gunas which are nature-born, in him, and free himself of the painful bondage of gunas, the chain of deaths and births so that he couldqualify himself to enter the long path that would finally lead him to [Para] [shanti], th eEterna Peace. Again these cords of [yajnopavita] reminds you of your indebtedness to the Rishis, who passed the eternal knowledge to posterity, to the [pitris],who transmitted the knowledge to you through your father, and finally to the Gods collectively representing the Supreme Spirit. This in brief is the significance of the [yajnopavita]. The Upanayana comes under the pruview of the domestic rites. Nevertheless it has a direct bearing on teh Vedic studies. Moreover it is the basic common ceremony for all rituals, shrauta as well as domestic. I have, therefore, focussed on this [samskara] alone in my present study. PART--TWO 7 CORPUS OF VEDAS After this brief observation inroducing the Vedic literature, let me turn to teh discussion of some of the important individual works belonging to the Vedas. The Vedic literature is made up of four Vedas and each of the Vedas consists of four sub-division, viz., (1) [Samhita], forming the collection of hymns in the form of prayers, laudations, incantations etc., (2) [Brahmanas], mainly composed in prose explaining the mystical significance of sacrificial rites, symbolism, etymology etc., (3) [Aranyakas]. the forest trastises, and (4) Upanishads, the secret doctrines. Though the Upanisads are considered as independent works, yet, in some cases, they formed the last part of some of teh majoe [Brahmanas] and in some istances, even of the [Samhitas]. for instance, the [Brhadaranyakopanisad] is the last chapter of the [Shatapatha Brahmana]. Similarly Kenopanishad forms the concluding chapter of the [Jaiminiya] Upanishad [Brahmana] and [Ishavasya-Upanishad] is the last chapter of the [Shukla Yajurveda Samhita]. This last part of the Veda known later as Vedanta is most important for it constitutes the authentic source of the Indian philosophy and metaphysics as it is, the oldest recordes of human aspiration in quest of ultimate realtiy. While sacrificial rites have nearly become extinct and the domestic rituals have been curtailed to a great extent in India, the Vedic philosophy will ever be studied and assimilated by the world communtiy of thinkers and [Sadhakas], with a feeling of gratitude to the great Indian sages of the past. This unique contribution of India to the world culture and philosophy will remain unobsured and unsurpassed in the cultural horizon of the world, ever-shining,-as long as the moon and the stars shine in the heaven [achandra-tara], as is said in sanskrit. This vast literature ranging from the [Samhitas] upto the Upanishads, and regarded as the sacred divine revelation, consists of more than a 100 books and they form the primary source and basis of almost every later development in our great civilization. The whole Indian literature beginning from the Vedas and extending upto [Puranas], along line of succession of works expounding the religous and philosophical thoguht of India, though belonging to successive periods of time, represent the unity of thought, and the antiquity of the great Vedic tradition. Each of these four Vedas was prewerved in several recensions buta larger number of them were long lost to posterity due to several reasons. The adherents to various Veidc schools which were less popular, either merged themselves with the followers ofthe pther recensions of the same Veda in their neighbourhood or compelled by force of circumstances or otherwise, accepted the one that was ealily accessible and which had larger following. Their original [shakha] for want of followers was gradually lost and remained only in name in Vedic ancillaries and other works. There were instances of the followers of one particular recension changing over to another one of the same Veda and sometimes even to teh Veda other than their own. The Vedic schools were generally confined to different regions or Brahmins' settlements and when some of the families from these regions migrated to distant places and adjusted themselves to their new surroudings, they, after a few generations, forgot their original recension and accepted the Vedic recension that prevailed in their new sttlement. Today in the whole of [Aryavarta] the [madhyandina] school of [Vajasaneyi] [samhita] of the Shukla Yajurveda is universally followed and no trace of any other Vedic schools that once flourished in this region can be discovered. Panjab was originally the home of the Rigveda and (Kuru) [Pancala] region was likewise once dominated by the Krishan Yajurveda and [Jaiminiya] schools of the Samsveda. The [Taittiriya] [Samhita] of the Krishna Yajurveda preserved in [Sarasvata-patha] actually emanated from the region of [Kurupanchala] but today it is found only in the [Dakshinapatha]. The [Sarasvat] Brahmins who migrated from the Panjab-Hariyana region to the South have still preserved the Rigveda in its [Shakala] [Shakha] as their own resension but those living in the Panjab-Hariyana region, the original home of the Sarasvats, and other Brahmins living in the North have altogether abandoned their original Veda and have adhered to the [Vajasaneyi] [Samhita] in its [Kanva] or [Madhyandina] recension. The [Kanva] [shakha] was originally followed by the Sarasvats of Himachal and also those in the neighbourhood down the plane, but today they study the [Madhyandina] recension. In Nagpur the adherents of [Charaka-Samhita] of the Krishna Yajurveda actually study the [Maitrayani] [Samhita] which side by side with the [Madhyandina Samhita] is in vogue in this region. The Charaka and [Maitrayani] schools of the Yajurveda are closely inter-related and the differences in readings and deviations in teh rituals and ceremonials of these two Veidc Schools are not very significant. similar is the case between the [Kanva] and [Madhyandina Samhitas] of the Shukla Yajurveda. Further, they too have the [Kalpasutras] of common authorship which makes the merger into either or change over from one to another easier and smoother. It is still more interesting to note that the followers of [Kauthuma Shakha] of the [Samaveda] in the South have unwittingly accepted the Drahyayana Shrauta Sutra of the [Ranayaniya] [Shakha] abandoing the [Latyayana] Shrauta [Sutra] of their own Kauthuma tradition. The laity often being ignorant of ritual procedures, it may be noted in this connection, si guided by the presist who more often than not follow their own Vedic school in these matters and perform the religious ceremonies as prescribed in their own Kalpa-[Sutras]. The North Eastern region and the regions beyond the Himalayas, where the Trantric cult once reigned supreme and the Vedic learning receded for long have later introdued a new tradition bringing about the merger of these two parallel cultural streams. In the Dakshinapatha all the four Vedas are still preserved and some of the rare [Shakhas] of these Vedas are still studied by the adherents of these [shakhas]. In this connection the kind patronage extended by the Senior Swamiji of the Kanchi [Kamakoti] [Pitha] for the preservation of the rare Vedic [Shakhas] must be gratefully remembered. In the remote villages of Orissa which once enjoyed royal patronage one may still come across many rare Vedic manuscripts languishing in private possession. In interior Maharashtra too we need not be surprised if we discover some rare Vedic manuscripts and also the manuscripts of Vedic ancillaries. Two such collections of old manuscripts were found in Nasik, during the survey we made in 1977, which were acquired by the Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala, Poona. These collections included some good old manuscripts of [Maitrayani] [Samhita] and some such other rare works. ---------------------- THE RIGVEDA ---------------------- Among the [Samhitas] the Rigveda [Samhita] is the oldest. A large collection of hymns and verses of this Veda is borrowed by the other three Vedas, with slight phonetic variation and some variants. The [Samaveda is made up, in its entirety, of the hymns taken from the Rigveda with an exception of about 70 hymns. Of the two known [Shakhas ] of the Rigveda namely [Shakala] and [Baskala], only the former is found in vogue today. The Rigveda, studied by the Nambudiries in part, belongs to the [Baskala] [Shakha] or [Kaushitaki] but the style of Nambudiri recitation of the Rigveda, like that of the other Vedas, greatly differs. Rigveda means the Veda consisting of ricas, the songs in praise of gods. This Veda contains altogether 1028 hymns comprising a total of 10,552 verses, divided into ten Mandalas or into eight Ashtakas. Mandalas 2 to 7 are called the 'Family Books' as the hymns, revealed to mostly six different Rishi families were collected and brought together separately in each of these six Mandalas. The Eishis whose collections of hymns are included in the family books are [Gritmada], [Vishvamitra], [Vamadeva], [Atri], [Bharadvaja] and [Vashistha]. [Mandala] 8 contains the hymns mostly ascribed to the family of [Kanva], Mandala 9 comprises the hymns dedicated to Soma [Pavamana], which are mostly Sung at the Soma sacrifices. mandalas 1 and 10 contain the hymns revealed to a variety of Rishis and most of the Philosophical hymns are found in these two books of the Rigveda. The hymns are the divine revelations by means of which the Vedic Rishis communicated with Nture dieties, the manifestations of the Supreme Eternal [Avyakta] in different forms. The Rigveda, which is regarded as the oldest literary document the world possessed, exhibits some of the finest pieces of poetry dedicated to the Nature deities. Moreover, the [Gayatri], the most sacred mantra that an Indian recites every day in his morning and evening prayers comes from the Rigveda. That this mantra was revealed to sage [Vishvamitra] is recorded in Mandala3 (62.10). -------------------------- THE YAJURVEDA -------------------------- Yajurveda means the Veda of sacrificial formulas which are primarily concerned with sacrificial acts. These formulas consists of brief prose sentences as well as verses, a majority of the latter have already occurred in the Rigveda but with some variants. This Veda in sacrificial parlance is known as the veda of the Adhvaryu just as the Rigveda is known as the Veda of the Hotar and the [Samaveda] as the Veda of the [Udgatar]. Each sacrificial act is accompanied with teh recitation of the sacrificial formulas including the verses and these mantras in the Yajurveda are arranged in the order of sacrificial performance. These mantras comprising the formulae and verses are in the form of prayer to divinities, including those presiding over the articles used in a sacrifice. The Ritviks and the other personnel in sacrificial sessions functioned under the direction of the Adhvaryu, and thus the Yajurveda occupied a very prominent place in all major sacrificial rites. The Yajurveda once existed in as many as 101 Shakhas of which 86 belong to the Krishna Yajurveda and 15 to the Shukla Yajurveda. Out of these two divisions five of the Krishna Yajurveda and two of the Shukla Yajurveda are known to exist today. They are:- 1. Taittiriya-Samhita 2. Maitrayani-Samhita 3. Katha-Samhita 4. Kapisthala-Katha-Samhita 5. Caraka Samhita of the Krishna Yajurveda. 6. Vajasaneyi-Kanva-Samhita and 7. Vajasaneyi Madhyandina Samhita, of the Shukla Yajurveda. In the Krishna Yajurveda [Samhita] the sacrificial formulae are followed by theological discussions which constitute the contents which should legitimately find a place only in a [Brahmana] and not in a [Samhita]. since these [Samhitas] are mixed withthe [Brahmanas], they are known as Krishna, the black. The Yajurveda [Samhitas], which are bereft of these [Brahmana] portions, and consist of only the mantras-formulae and verses- are known as shukla, the white. There is a popular story about the origin and history of the [Shukla Yajurveda]. [Yajnavalkyua], the son of [Vajasani], was studying the Veda in the Gurukula of [Vaishampayana] his ownuncle, who, one day got angry with him for reason of disobedienc oracademic arrogance, and turned him out of the [Ashram]. He also strictly prohibited [Yajnavalkya] from making use of whatever he had learnt from him in his [Ashram]. The youngstudent, sad and much dejected, worshipped the Sun God, who, pleased with his deep devotion revealed to him the Yajurveda, but know as Shukla, the white or bright, for two reasons, that 1.it came down from the Sun and 2. it contained puremantras alone, not mingled with [brahmana], theological discussion. This Yajurveda later became known as the [Vajasaneyi-Shukla-Yajurveda] meaning that the Shukla Yajurveda belonging to [Vajasaneya], the son of [Vajasani]. it is interesting to note, in this connection, that his father offered only [vaja], cooked rice or food (vegetarian) as [havis] to gods,an innovation he had initiated in the cult of sacrifice like Godha, the Rigvedic woman Rishi, who had earlier, abstained from immolation of animals in Vedic sacrifices. He became known later as [Vajasani], one who offered [Vaja] as [sani], oblation to Gods and [Yajnavalkya] his son, being proud of his father and ancestry, added his family name to the Yajurveda that he had brough into existence, as [Vajasaneyi-Shukla-Yajurveda]. To begin with he taught this Veda to a batch of 15 students, who in turn taught it to their own disciples establishing 15 [Shakhas] of the [Vajasaneyi] Shukla Yajurveda of which only two [Shakhas] viz., [Kanva] and [Madhyandina] have reached us today.These two [Samhitas] are closely interrelated, and they are almost identical, except for the recensional variants and some differences in the components of the mantras which are employed in sacrificial acts. According to the traditional view the Krishna Yajurveda like any other Veda, originated from [Brahma], the self-born, and then it came down through the lineage consiting of divine, semi-divine and human personages. But the Shukla yajurveda, on the contrary, is said to have been revealed by Sun God direct to [Yajnavalkya] with none in the line to intervene. We have a similar instance as reagards the origin of the great eternal [Rajayoga], which too, as narrated in the [Bhagavad Gita], was taught by the Sun God direct to Manu [Prajapati], a great personality]. like [Yajnavalkya], who lived in hoary antiquity. Further, in the corpus of the Vedas the establised order of sequence of Vedic works of different category begins from the [Samhita] as against this established order concludes its last chapter with an Upanishad, as if to indicate that all acts terminate at the end in [jnana] alone, in realisation of ultimate Truth and that it mustnot be misdirected for the purpose of ephemeral gain. This Upanishad, with its very significant title [Ishavasya], clearly points out: The [Vajasaneyi] [Madhyandina]Shukla Yajurveda has long replaced the [Krsna] Yajurveda from the length and breadth of [Uttarapatha] and today, the only other Veda that is still studied there, that too in the area of Bihar and Bengal, is the [Samaveda] of the Kauthuma recension alone. The [Taittiriya-Samhita] which is in vogue in the [Dakshinapatha] exists today in what is known as the [Sarasvata-patha], as it was believed to have been preserved and passed on to post-erity by Rishi [Sarasvata], when the study of this Veda, that was exclusively followed by the people of the region of [Kuru-Panchala] in those days, was abandoned when the entire population migrated from there in search of food elsewhere because of the prolonged natural calamity that ravaged that region. Among the [Shakhas] of the Yajurveda, [Taittiriya] is widely studied in theSouth and the parts of Maharashtra; the [Maitrayani] in Nasik-Nagpur] region; and the Caraka [Samhita] in Nagpur-Aurangabad region. The followers of [Kanva] [Samhita] are found at Tirunelveli in Tamilnadu, in Karnataka, in interior Maharashtra, in Andhra and in southern orissa. This [Shakha] of the Shukla Yajurveda was once studied by the [Sarasvat] Brahmins of Kuru-[Pancala] and Himalayan region. I was told that in this region there was a village known as [Kanvagram] where Brahmias had settled in large number. But today most of them have forgotten their tradition and learn [Madhyandina] recension instead, beacuse of teh non-availability of the [Kanva-Shukla] yajurveda [Samhita]. The Yajurveda [Samhita] as a whole compared to the other Vedas, particularly the Rigveda, is monotonous with the repetition of prayers to various gods to whom offerings are made in sacrifices and it is utterly committed to [fulfil] the ritualists need of the Adhvaryu in sacrifices. Most of the verses in the [Samhitas] of this area are the reproduction of the verses in the [Samhitas] of this area are the reproduction of the verses from the Rigveda with same variants. The original contribution of the [Yajurveda Samhita] to the Vedic literature mainly consists of its formulae and theological discussions dominated by prayer and explanation of sacrificial formulae including the verses therein and of the symbolical significance of many sacrificial acts and material. In fact the brief sentences, often rhythmical, of the sacrificial formulae, and the theological discussions that follow in the Yajurveda [Samhita] mark the beginning of prose literature in Sanskrit. But as a literary work it is tedious andleast interesting in sanskrit. But as a literary work it is tedious and least interesting to a reader. al the same for a student of science of religion, particularly for one who is interested and engaged in investigating the origin, development, and significance of prayer in the history of religion the Yajurveda provides enough material. --------------------------------- THE ATHARVA VEDA --------------------------------- [Atharva Veda] means the Veda of the Atharvans, the fire-priests or magicians ofyore. It has preserved many primitive beliefs and practices such as witchcraft, sorcery etc., and the oldest form of magic formulas. The Atharvaveda consists of two recensions known as [Shaunaka] and [Paippalada], [Samhita] was followed in Kashmir, but today very few adherents of this Veda are located there. In Orissa, however the followers of this recension are said to extst and some good manuscripts of this [Shakha]were discovered there some years back. The Shaunaka recension, that is available in print, contains six thousands verses distributed in twenty chapters. The Atharvaveda, like the Rigveda and unlike the Yajurveda and the Samaveda, was not compiled for liturgical purposes although most of the hymns and spells of the Atharvaveda were employed for ritualistic and magic purposes. The arrangement of the hymns, in the [Kandas] of Atharvaveda, has been made on the basis of the number of verses a hymn consisted of e g. In [Kanda] 7 generally as a rule a hymn consists of four verses each, [Kanda] III five, [Kanda] III six and so on, and also, on the basis of length of the hymns, e.g. [kandas] VIII-XVI have throughout the largest hymns. Thus in the arrangement of hymns in each [Kanda] the number of verses has been considered first and then only their contents in the Atharvaveda. The hymns of the Atharvaveda may be classified into a few broad division according to their contents and applications in various rites. There are hymns employed in rites for healing of diseases; hymns containing spells and incantations to drive away evil spirits and demon; hymns for [Prayascitta], expiatory rites, and hymns for [Paushtika], benedictory rites of various kinds; hymns for [bhaishajya], for magic rites, for healing diseases; etc. There are hymns employed in unholy rites of many kinds, enchantment of women, witchcraft etc. As teh [Samaveda] is the oldest book of music, so is the Atharvaveda, the oldest book of medical sciences, archery etc. It may be noted at the same time that besides incantations, spells, benediction etc., the Atharvaveda contains a number of hymns of philosophical contents. metaphysical thought, and those dealing with the concept of the highest god as creator, of cosmogony etc. Although the Atharvaveda has no direct bearing on a majority of Shrauta rituals, thechief supervisory priest at sacrifices, known as [Brahma], who is charged with the duty of protecting the sacrificer from being harmed by evil spirits must have specialised in teh atharvaveda besides being the master of 'threefold knowledge' and the entire sacrificial procedures. Therefore, the Atharvaveda is known as the Brahmaveda, the Veda of [Brahma], in sacrificial parlance, just as the Rigveda is known as the Veda of Hotar, the Yajurveda as the Veda of Adhvaryu and the [Samaveda] as the veda of the [Udgatar]. Though the contribution of the Atharvaveda to the higher [philosophical and religious thoughts and mysticism is not of less magnitude than that of the other Vedas, yet the Atharvaveda is overcast by magic incantations, spells and benedictions, obscuring it sreal and important contribution to our great heritage. ------------------------- THE SAMAVEDA ------------------------- The [Samaveda] is the book of music that is being sung at sacrifices. As the Rigveda is the book of prayers, the Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial formulas, so is the [Samaveda], the book of liturgical songs. As such, the emphasis with regard to the [Samaveda] is not so much on it sverse texts and meaning, as on the notes of the mystic song sung on the text. Teh text simply serves the purpose of a base, on which the [Gana] is built up. The text in [Saman] techincal term is called [yoni], the womb whereform the [saman] melody is born. The [Samaveda] is believed to have had innumerable recensions [Sahasra-shakhah] [Samavedah], out of which, only three, viz., [Kauthuma], [Ranayaniya], and [Jaiminiya] are at present in vogue. The [Samatarpana], a thanks-giving prayer to the gods, rishis and the ancestors, that a follower of the [Samaveda] performs, enumerates thriteen names of the rishis who had established schools of the [Samaveda] and also handed over as many recensions to posterity. The [Samaveda] consists of two parts commonly known as the [Archikas], [Purva], and [uttara], first and second. [Archika means simply collection of verses on which the melodies of the [Samaveda] are rendered by lengthening and diphthongization of vowels, by inserting mystic syllables, words and phrases sometimes even a whole line-all called [stobhas], meaning exclamations in praise of god. The [Purva-Archika] is divided into four sections, called [Agneya], [Aindra], [pavamana] and [Aranyaka]. The first three consist of verses dedicated to Agni, Indra and [Pavamana] respectively and it is so called for it is to be sung in forest, in seclusion, away from the din and voice of the dusty path of life. At the end the [Mahanamnyachika] consisting of tenverses is appended thereto. The hymns in the [Uttararchika] are arranged keeping in view the order or rituals performed at the [yajnasamsthas], where they are employed. Each hymn in this section consists mostly of three verses, since they form the constituents of strophic melodies of the [Uttaragana]. The books of melodies built on the two [Archikas], collections of verses, are divided into two parts, [Purvagana] and [Uttaragana]. The [Purvagana] is again classified into two sections, (1) the [Gramegeya], consisting of melodies sung in public, and(2) the [Aranyegeya, consisting of melodies chanted in seclusion. The first part forms part of [svadhyaya], implying there by that it is imperative on teh part of a student of the [Samaveda] to learn the [Purvagana] is composed, on one-verse-for-one-[gana] basis, whereas the [Uttaragana] is sung on a [trca] i.e., on the unit of three verses for each [gana]; in other words, a melody of [Uttaragana] is completed in three [stotriyas], each[stotriya] being sung on one verse in the order as they are foundin the [trca] to make up a [gana] in this section. The [Uttaragana] is divided into two sections known as [uhs] and [uhya], and the first in their melodic structure is adapted to the [Gramegeya] and the second to the [Aranyageya]. Both the [Aranyegeya and the Uhya melodies are designated as [rahasya ganas], the secret melodies of deep mysticism. 8 THE BRAHMANAS The subdivision of the Veda that contains the explanation of the mantras which are employed in various rites and sacrifices is known as [Brahmana]. The word [Brahmana] literally means explanation of [Brahman], the Vedic mantra, that is recited by the priests in teh course of performance of sacred rites,rituals and sacrifices. The word in general is also applied to the syntactical units cited as authority containing the explanation of the mantras or utterances of the learned ritualists in teh contextof procedures of sacrificail ceremonies. Such sentences are cited in teh course of discussion and elucidation of important points in the [Brahmanas] and [Shrauta] and [Grhya] texts, and many of these are stray citations which cannot be traced in the existing texts. These stray sentences conslude with [iti] [brahmanam], " thus goes the Brahmana". The [Brahmanas] are the indispensable decuments to undertand the gradual evolution of the Vedic religion, and philosophy and they provide in the course of discussion keys to unfold the abstruse expressions carefully worded therein. These theological treatises of the Vedas, while explaining the mantras, the Vedic legends and sacrificial rituals, often emphasize the fact that gods reveal the truth indirectly and in secret language and that they simply dislike to express esoteric wisdom, [Brahmavidya],in vulgar language [Paroksapriya devah] [Pratyaksa-vidvisah]. These treatises, for that matter the entire range of Vedic literature, from the [Samhitas] to the [Brahmanas] are not meant for ordinary reading. For a general reader, the greater portion of the [Brahmanas] " is simply twadle. and what is worse, theological twadle" as Maxmuller observed. ---------------------------- MYSTIC SACRIFICE ---------------------------- In the course of discussion on the sacrificial fult, a number of cosmogmic myths and legends are brought in for explaining the cosmic nature and pervasiveness of the sacrificial acts and their relation to the functioning of Rita, the universal order. The narratives include symbolical interpretation and speculative reasonings of the ceremonies and the relationship of the sacrificial formulae to the concept of cosmogony. The sacrifice performed by Yajamana, a sacrificer, represents symbolically thecosmic sacrifice which [Prajapati] is said to have performed at the commencement of the primaeval creation. Therefore the [Brahmanas] symbolically interpret every sacrificial act and procedure and explain their significance, and the significance of articles and accessories that are used in the material sacrifice, [dravya-yajna], in realtion to the cosmic phenomena. The sacrificial cult constitutes essentially an exercise a worshipper undertakes to understand the complex riddles and mysteries pertaining to the cosmos and cosmogony. This great cult later got degenerated when the significance of things symbolically represented and the real meaning of the elaborate procedures were long forgotten. Teh sacrifices that are performed as a means to achieve mundance gain, including those which are done to satisfy man's base desires, proved ineffective and gradually the intelligentsia developed a great aversion even during early Vedic period towards the entire exercise including the immolation of innocent animals in particular that is carried out at the premises of sacred fire altar. For example, [Godha], a female Rishi, condemns in unambiguous terms the evil practice of killing animals in sacrifices for making offerings to Gods. In her invocation addressing the Gods she says:- "O Gods never do we immolate animals in sacrifices nor are we confused in this matter. We, however strictly adhere to the real Vedic tradition (in this respect)." [Bhagavan] [Shri Krishna] clearly disapproves of this degenerated sacrificial cult which"holds out birth as the reward of works and treats of specific acts, wherewith to secure [svarga], cattle, progeny and the like, and wherewith to attain pleasures and power". A [Sadhaka] engages himself all the while in search of truth canalising all his energy and directing all his acts towards the [jnana-marga], the path of supreme knowledge, with no longing for material gain in any form. This is known as [jnana yajna], wisdom-sacrifice, which is superior to the sacrifice that a [yajamana] performs with material objects, aspiring material gain, since "wisdom fire reduces all actions to ashes even as the burning fire reduces fuel to ashes". The sacrifice performed with material objects is called [dravyamaya-yajna], since [dravya], the material objects such as ghee, cake and so on are offered as oblationsin this sacrifice in order to appeare the gods and gain their favour. The Rigveda refers to a great primeval cosmic sacrifice performed by the Gods, in which Purusha, the Supreme Being Himself, was offered as oblation. since everything in this universe including "that yet hath been and all that is to be" i.e., the things, past, present and future, was equated with Purusha, whatever was offered in the cosmic sacrifice any-where and any time, in fine, transcending time and space, cannot be anything but Purusha. The [Shankhayana] [Aranyaka] refers to a mystic sacrifice, which it calles [antaram] [agnihotram], internal Agnihotra, a sacrifice to Agni, that is performed for the realization of the Supreme Spirit-[adhyatmikam]. It says "all gods are comprehended in Purusha, the Supreme Spirit; fire in His Speech, wind in His vital airs, sun in His eyes, the moon in His mind, the quarters in his ears, and waters in His semen". Therefore whatever is offered to the Gods in sacrifices actually becomes offered to the Supreme Brahman Himself. A person, who has realized thistruth, who has identified himself with the Brahman, equates his every act, including eating, drinking etc., which is performed to staisfy his various needs and urges, with the act of offering oblations to various Gods in teh mystic sacrifice, [antaram][agnihotram]. The cosmic sacrifice to Agni is referred to as [vairajam] [agnihotram], an Agnihotra to [Virat] Purusha, of whom [Prana], [apana] and [vyana] form the three sacrificial fires representing [Ahavaniya], [Garhapatya] and [Anvaharyapacana]. In this mystic sacrifice mind represents the smoke, anger the flame, teeth the burnig coal, faith the water, speech the fuel, truth the oblation, the enlightened soul that essence (extracted from Soma). A person, who has realized the Supreme Reality, performs a sacrifice equating the externa sacrifice, i.e., the [dravyayajna] with the internal i.e., with the [jnana-yajna]. a [sadhaka] who has reached this state on the spiritual plane is called a [Brahmacharin], who. though he freely moves about in the world unnoticed, merely adheres to the Brahman; always identifies himself with the Brahman. the oblation, the procedures, the accessories, the material, the formula, the chant, in short, everything that goes to make up a sacrifice, si equated with the Purusha, and ultimately with the [Yajna], itself; is identified with the Purusha in the Vedas. This [Yajna] is known as the [Vairajam] [agnihotram], a sacrifice to [Vairaja] Purusha born of [Virat], the mundane egg. This [Vairaja] Purusha, as soon as he was born, s[pread in all directions over the earth and beyond. It is thus Purusha identified with [Yajna], who has pervaded the visible universe and to whom the Gods offer oblation in the cosmic sacrifice, that creates the universe after each great Pralaya. There are two Purushas referred to in the Rigveda, like two avyakta's later in Vedanta, the first refers to the Supreme Being, and the second to [Prajapati], the creator. The Purusha [sukta] gives details of this great cosmic sacrifice from which the universe and everything therein emerged. The [Shankhayana] [Aranyaka] clearly says that it is futile to perform a sacrifice without knowing the esoteric significance of the sacrificial cult, the secret of sacrificial institutions. It is like throwing oblation away from the burning fire into the cold ashes from which the fire has lone become extinct [atha ya idam avidvan agnihotram juhoti yathangaran apohya bhasmani hutam tadrk tat syat tadrk tat syat]. The Bhagavad [Gita] refers to this sacrifice as [Brahmayajna] or [jnana-yajna] and says: " The ladle with which the oblation is poured in the fire is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman; by Brahman is the oblation poured into the fire of Brahman; surely the goal to be reached by him, who is absorbed in such a sacrifice as Brahman, is also Brahman, (absolute)". This statement of the Bhagavad [Gita] applies to a [Sadhaka], who has attained the status of a [siddha yogin], of a [Mahatma], who has liberatedhimself from the bonds of [Samsara], the ever-changing world. Commenting on this stanza of the Bhagavad [Gita], Bhagavan [Shankaracharya] observes:--"The man who has realized Brahman sees that the instrument by which the oblation is poured in the fire is nothing but Brahman; that it has no existence apart from that of the Self, just as silver has no existence apart from the mother of pearl 9mistaken for silver). What ( in the illustration) appears as silver is nothing but the mother-of pearl. what the people look upon as the instrument of offering is, to one who has realized Brahman, nothing but Brahman. brahman is the oblation, i.e., what is reagarded as oblation is to him nothing but Brahman; and it is by Brahman that the offering is made, i.e, the agent is none other than Brahman. The act of offering is nothing but Brahman; and the result, the goal to be reached by him who always sees in action is nothing but Brahman". The [Brahmanas], thus, though they are mainly concerned with discussions on the purpose and meaning of the sacrifice possess great significance for the history of Indian thought. The symbolical interpretations of everything connected with sacrifice- the relevant mantras, sacrificial implements, the altar, bricks and layers thereof, and then the functions and duties of the priests, -- are all highly interesting for a student of general science of religion as also for a mystic. The discussions of the priests and their speculative reasoning for different ceremonies, the relevance of the mantras recited in teh context of each sacrificial act,provide rich material for the study of the Vedic religion. The speculations and discussions, in which the fire-altar symbolizes the universe, pervade throughout this area of literature-from the [Brahmanas] to the [Aranyakas] and then to the Upanishads though the latter assign little importance to the rituals. For instance, the two upanishads the [Chandogya]-and the [Brhad Aranyaka]- and the [Aranyakas] of the Rigveda are eloquent in representing the cosmic nature of the sacrificial cult. In these the fire-altar, its fuel, smoke, light, coal and sparks are identified with various things in the world including the objects of natural phenomena. The later vedic literature, especially the [Brahmanas], are conspicuous with their dogmatic explanation of the sacrificial ceremonies and teh fire-altar. In this context they often speak of cosmogonic myths, ancient legends and narratives; all containing the most diversified ideas and speculations of different dimension. The dismembered limbls and the mentaal faculties of [Prajapati], the world-man or all-embracing personality who has taken the place of the earlier [Purusha], the Supreme Being, whenoffered in the sacrificial fire go to fashion the universe and all visit and invisible things that exist therein. From the fact that the universe was deemed to have originated from the 'all-offered sacrifice'-- [Sarvahutah Yajnat], We can imagine how much glory the Vedic Rishis had ascribed to the sarificial rite. Moreover, its identification with the Vedic deities such as [Prajapati], Agni, Vishnu and so on, reveals further the importance attached to the sacrificial cult. The [Brahmanas] furnish us with the details of the complicated ritual of [Agnichayana], the construction of the sacred Fire-Altar. In this context the cosmoginic and theosophic theories constitute the special characteristic feature of the Vedic literature of this period. The firealtar, the construction of which is spread over a year, has been taken as the miniature representation of at least the visible universe. It may be remembered in this connection that the time required for the erection of thefire-altar was equal to that which the golden egg was supposed to have taken to mature and split into two. Each brick of the altar was laid with a special consecrating text in which mention was made of the corresponding part of the universe that the brick represented. The altar (Vedi) symbolizes the female creative energy, and the divine Sacrificer or Fire the male creative energy, and the mystic union of these two was believed to have brought forth these worlds and all that existed therein. The [Brahmanas] are inclined to explain things indirectly in a mystic way and in doing so the etymological explanations of words sometimes appear most fanciful, based as they are, more on apparent accidental phonetic resemblance than the relevant grammatical rules. The fire-altar is erected in the shape of an outspread bird, an eagle or falcon, flying towards the east, gate of heaven. [Brahmanas], thus, although they speak much about the sacrificial cult, abound in cosmogonic speculations and symbolic representation of Fire altar and the things connected therewith. Since the sacrifices were performed in the tradition and practices maintained by the different Veidc schools (Shakhas), each Vedic (Shakha) had a [Brahmana] of its own. With the passage of time, many of the [Brahmana texts were lost and consequently some of the [shakhas] today have no [Brahmanas] of their own. An exception to this general rule is the [Samaveda], which has as many as eight [Brahmanas], written in the [sutra] style and dealing with diversified subjects, not necessarily connected with sacrificial cult, except, of course, the [Brahmanas] [Tandya] and sadminsha. The table given at the end mentioning the known [shakhas] of the Vedas and theirsubdivisions may be referred to for information on the Vedic hierarchical literature. 9 THE ARANYAKAS AND UPANISHADS The philosophical aspirations of the Vedic Rishis'- their earnest quest for discovering the origin of the universe and their penetrating speculations on the existence of the Ultimate Supreme Reality as revealed in the expressions of divine Vedic chantsare submerged in the later sacrificial cult, the [Yajna-samathas] and their elaborate procedures that dominated the thoughts of the [Brahmanas] only to reappear later with added strength in the [Aryanyakas] and Upanishads. In the course of discussionsof the significance of the Shrauta ceremonies, in expressions in riddles and paradoxes met with in the Veda as also in the explication of sacrificial cult,- its accessories, material, formula and procedures etc.-deeply imbibed in mysticism and symbolism, and in the cosmogonic legends and narratives, philosophical speculations frequently appear in the [Brahmanas]. But the real significance of the sacrifice is found explained in teh[Aranyakas] later. Teh Upanishads go a step further bidding final goodbye to the long ritual tradition and concentrating on the quest of the mysteries of the universe, the Supreme secret doctrine, jealously concealed in the sayings of the Rishis expressed in riddles and paradoxes. The gradual development of the Vedic religion from the state of simple laudation and invocation of the Nature deities to the form of more complicated and elaborate sacrificial cult is well reflected in the deliberation of the[Brahmanas], although at the same time, a strong undercurrent of mysticism and metaphysics contined to flow unbroken through the [Samhitas] and the [Brahmanas], culminating ultimately in the great Upanishadic philosophy, popularly known as [Vedanta]. The thirst for [para-vidya] the urge for higher knowledge, took clearly a definite line, which through the [Aranyakas] reached its superb height in teh thoughts of the Upanishads. [Aranyaka] means the forest treatise. The [Brahmavids] the mystics of the Vedic period, resorted to the [Ashramas] located in teh depths of forests, far removed from the din of the busy life of a [grama], township, where they discussed the knotty problems pertaining to [atman] and [Brahman] with the Vedic seers. These discussions, and dialogues - questions and answers-, relating to [atman] and [paramatman] are found recorded in the books known as [Aranyakas] and Upanishads. it may be noted that the [Aranyakas], although they speak of mysticism and mysticism and symbolism of sacrificial institutions,are no longer concerned with the rules pertaining to the [Yajnasamsthas]. They speak of the cosmic sacrifice, which the Gods had performed in the beginning of the universe, from which the universe is said to have evoleved. In many instances the Aranyakas constitute the later component parts of [Brahmanas].In fact many [Shakhas] do not have a separate part called [Aranyaka] at all. In many otgher instances, it is often difficult to draw a sharp line between [Aranyakas and Upanishads- are equally difficult to understand and both constitute the end, the concluding part, of the Veda, the final part of this great heritage of India. Hence the teachings of these texts is known as [Vedanta]. The word Upanishad means 'to sit near'. The faithful and trusted disciples used to sit near their teachers for the purpose of confidential communication between the teacher and the taught, and magnetise the line of heritage in order to preserve the secret doctrine in its full manifestation. The word Upanished actually means secret or confidential session. It is often used in the sense of esoteric doctrine or secret knowledge,--[rahasya], as it is used in Sanskrit literature. The Upanishads, particularly the earliest and the most important ones, come at the end of the [Brahmanas] or in some instances even at the end of the [Samhita] text as in the case of Ishopanishad. The fundamental doctrine of the Upanishadic philosophy was based on these earliest books. They are attributed to different Vedic schools and have in fact come down in many instances, as component parts of the respective [Brahmanas. These important Upanishads, revealing the highest knowledge, could be regarded as the greatest achievement of the Vedic Aryans, of which the entire human race could rightly feel proud. The fundamental doctrine of the Upanishads is that which deals with the [Para] [vidya], (higher knowledge) pertaining to the Supreme Brahman. The [Taittiriya] Upanishad briefly describes this conception as:- Yato [va imani bhutani jayante] yena [jatani jivanti] yat prayatyabhisamvishanti tad [Vijijnasasva brahme'ti The philosophy of the Upanishads revolves around the doctrine of Brahman with which the entire universe, visible and invisible, is identified --[sarvam Khalvidam brahma]. The social structure of the Vedic Aryans was composed of four [Ashramas] viz., [samnyasa] in particular was entirely dedicated to [tapasya], for realization of Brahman, the highest world-principle. At this stage a person strives for union with the Supreme Spirit. The [Rajarshis of yore were masters of the secret doctrine and eventhe great Rishis like [Yajnavalkya] and others used to resort to the royal courts to hear philosophical and metaphysical expositions of secret doctrine in order to clear their doubts. It was not unusual for [Sadhakas] and [Brahmacarins] to seek guidance and enlightment from the Royal Sages on this abstruse subject. [Kalidasa] has briefly described the routine life of the [Rajarshis] in his Raghuvamsha thus:-- shaishave' [bhyasta-vidyanam] [yauvane visayaisinam] [vardhake muni-vrttinam] [yogenante tanutyajam] This ancient tradition that came down from time immemorial is referred to as immortal yoga in the [Bhagvad Gita] where it is said that the royal sages were the possessors of this highest knowledge. The secret doctrine remained the close preserve of the [Rajarshis] for long, though not necessarily exclusively, and while they reigned supreme losing themselves in deep thoughts and meditation and wandered unchallenged in this region of Seers and Sages the priestly class indulged in sacrificial cult and rituals for ephemeral gain. The [apara vidya], was exclusively reserved by the priests for themselves, which in course of time not only lost the admiration of the enlightened public but also generated a strong antipathy against the [yajna-samsthas]. In fact, several sects arose in revolt against the ritual practice, condemning the senseless immolation of innocent animals in sacrificial rites. It may be noted that the [Brahmands] and [Aranyakas], either as independent treatises or as component parts of greater works, are found belonging one each to a Vedic schools, the only exception to this general rule being the [Samaveda which has eight [Brahmanas]. Compared to the other [Brahmanas], most of the [Samaveda] [Brahmanas] belong to a later period, and are all composed in [Sutra] style. The Upanishads, unlike [Brahmanas] and [Aranyakas], are found in a very large number but most of them, with the exception of about twenty Upanishads, are of later origin and sectarian in charcter. The [Muktika] Upanishad gives a list of 108 Upanishadsof which 10 come under the Rigveda, 32 under the Black Yajurveda, 19 under the White Yajurveda, 16 under the [Samaveda] and 31 under the Atharvaveda. This classification is not authoritative and many and important Upanishads which are directly connected with the four Vedas, are only 12, but a few more, on their internal evidences, based on their contents, language and style, may be added to the list. All others are non-Vedic religious works expounding the doctrines and views of schools of philosophers and religious sects of a much later period. Bhagavan Shankaracharya has enumerated only twelve Upanishads as authoritative texts in his commentary on the [Brahmasutra]. They are:- Aitareya and [Kaushitaki] belonging to the Rigveda, [Taittiriya], [Katha], [Shvetashvatara] and [Mahanarayana] belonging to the Black Yajurveda, [Brhadarabyaka] and [Isha] belonging to the White Yajurveda, [Chandogya] and Kena to the [Samaveda] and lastly [Mundaka] and Prashna belonging to the Atharvaveda. To this list [Maitrayaniya] coming under the Black Yajurveda and [Mandukya] coming under the Atharvaveda may be added. These fourteen Upanishads form the authoritative sources for the Vedanta philosophy in its pure and original form. 10 THE VEDIC DEITIES The Vedic hymns, mostly of the Rigveda, are dedicated to teh deities of Nature represented by Agni, [Vayu], [Prithivi], Dyau etc., on the one hand, and by the natural phenomena such as dawn, night, light, rain etc., on the other. Besides, the deities presiding over Nature and natural phenomena, for example, the Ashvins, the deities of twilights, and conceptions and notions such as [Manyu] (anger)[Shraddha] (faith) etc., which are deified, are also included among the deities of the Vedic pantheon. Then finally there are all-powerful and all-pervading deities namely Indra, the great God of Vedic Aryans, and Varuna, the upholer of Rita, the cosmic order, who are in turn raised to the status of supreme Being in teh Rigveda. In short, the religious conception of the Vedic Aryans was dominated by the practice of nature worship. In this matter the zend Avasta of the Parsis and the Rigveda of the Indians closely run on paralled lines; even the language of these two great scriptures is so intimately akin to each other that a verse from one can be rendered into another without loss of the force of the original text if only one could knowhow to apply the phonetic law binding these two languages. Religious belief founded on Nature Worship, is may be pointed out, is well-reflected the thoughts of people in Indio-European period. In this connection out attention may be draw towards the cognate names of the Vedic deities preserved in the classical European Languages. e.g., Sanskrit [Dyauspati] in Greek Zeuspati, in Latin, Jupiter; Sanskrit Varuna in Greek Ournos; Sanskrit Agni in Latin Ignis; Sanskrit [Apah] in Latin Aqua etc. The Vedic people perceived divine power manifested in everything around them and they believed thecosmic phenomena to be the manifestation of the great unmanifest Supreme power in different and diverse forms. Among the Vedic deities many rise from the common natural basis and as such they share common characteristics resulting in the absence of distinctiveness among themselves, particularly among the deities presiding over the phenomena belonging to teh same domain. The common traits of some of such deities much spoken of in the Vedic hymns, are, being luminous, dispelling darkness, appearing in the morning, being powerful etc., and these traits are equally shared by Ushas, Agni, the Sun etc. The Aryans, being devoted to fire cult, kept the fire buring in every house and the first duty of a Vedic Aryan after getting up early in the morning was to kindle the fire feeding it with [samidha], firewood, in the fire place. For this reason Agni is often addresses as Usarbudha, one who awakes or rises early in the morning. Beacuse of the common charateristics, such as brilliance, power, beneficence wisdom etc., of these deities the Vedic Aryans believed that the same deity was manifesed in different formsin different regions: For example, the Vedic Aryans' reflection on the nature of Agni, such as his manifestations as individual fire on earth, as atmospheric fire in lightning, and as celestial fire in the Sun, as in other luminaries in the third heaven etc. Agni was lauded as all-powerful and called Vritra-slayer, Soma-drinker, winner of cows and waters, etc., -all these attributes which primarily belonged to Indra. The Vedic Rishi, alluding to all this in riddles, would conclude that the various deities are but forms of a single divine being. This idea is expressed in more than one passage of the Rigveda e.g., "To what is one, the pedants speak of in many ways. They call it Agni, Yama, Matarishvan"(1.164.46) ---------------------------------------------- PHILOSOPHICAL SPECULATION --------------------------------------------- The Vedic speculation inquiring into the origin of the universe and its creator, demonstrates the maturity of the mind and the depth of thought of a people who looked at the things around them philosophically rather than mythologically and asked questions which they, like modern scientists, often thought, even God Himself might not be able to answer satisfactorily. These religio-philosophical speculation running through different thought-channels ultimately culminated in the Upanishadic philosophy popularly known as Vedanta philosophy later. The philosophical speculations found in the Veda can be broadly classified into three categories namely,(1) those which give all prominence and active part to the male principke Purusha in creation;(2) those which assign the creative activity to the female principlePrakriti, and lastly (3) those which strike a compromise beetween these two principles, positive and nagative, as responsible for the creation and the preservation of the universe. The germs of thelater schools of philosophy are more or less based on these conceptions. While some of these speculations attribute, on the one hand, the origin of the universe to Purusha as in [Purusha eve' dam sarvam yad bhutam yacca bhavyam];(x.90.2) some other, on the other, to Aditi, the mother of Adityas as in vishve [deva] aditih [panca jana aditir jatam aditir janitvam](1.89.10); it may be pointed out, in this connection, that the origin of the shakti cult can be traced back to the Vedas, where in some of the verses and passages Aditi, the mother of the Gods, has been elevated to the status of Supreme Deity. There are cosmological hymns and passages in teh Rigveda according to some of which the origin of the universe was a kind of evolution and according to some others the universe was brought into existence, (visrsti) by [Brahma] or [Prajapati] or some other agent of creation. The famous [Nasadiya] hymn declares that formerly nothing existed, all being void: "Then was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky behind it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water"(X.129.1). The Rishi desperately asks again: "Who verily knows and who can here declare it. Whence it was born and whencecomes this creation? The Gods are later than this world's production. Who can here explain it? When it was born, when came this manifestation?" (X.129.6). Thus numerous are the cosmogonic versions scattered throughout the Vedic literature. They were the profound and lasting concepts emerging from the ruminations of the solitary minds deeply absorbed in the mystery of the universe, its origin, and ultimately in the glory of the Creator Himself. For this reason the consmagonic hymns are pregnant with the germs of philosophical thoughts of by gone ages which were preserved in the garb of myths and legends and are diffused in the [Brahmana] and post-[Brahmana] literature. Whether the sat sprang from the asat or the universe was evolved from the fathomles abyss of water or something else or brought into manifestations by Purusha or Prakriti or by both, to the diffident Vedic Rishi,the more the mysteries of the universe are probed into, the more do they become baffling and confused. Hence he consoles himself saying: "He only knows who from the highest heaven rules, the all seeing Lord-or perhaps he knows not". Therefore let us stop here for the present. OM. PART THREE 11 THE SAMAVEDA Among the Vedas the [Samaveda] has received the least attention of scholars and historians. This Veda was redacted with hymns and verses extracted from the Rigveda and arranged in its present form comprising [Purvarchika] and [Uttararchika] solely keeping its main purpose in view, i.e., the adaptation of the verse-text to the two categories of [ganas], namely the [Gramegeya] and [Aranyegeya] in one part, and the [Uha] and [Uhya] in another. Out of the total hymns it contained and as available to us today, only about 70 hymns are not traced in the Rigveda. It is possible that even these 70 hymns might have once formed part of the original Rigveda which was gradually lost in the course of oral transmission. It may be noted that the [Samasamhita] by itself, compared to the other [Samhitas], finds very little place in the sacrificial rituals. since almost all the hymns and verses this [Samhita] contains come from the Rigveda, the modern scholars did not pay much attention to the [Samasamhita]. Therefore, compared to the volume of research turned out in other branches of Vedic discipline, the work so far done in the wide range of [Saman] literature is comparatively much less, even though Veda possessed the largest number of [Brahmanas] and ancilliary works including the technical treatises dealing with the techniques of [Saman] melodies. --------------------------------- THE SAMA-SAMHITAS --------------------------------- The [Samaveda] is said to have had [Sahasra-Shakhas], 1000 recension. The [Sama-tarpana] mentions the name of 13 [Samagacharyas], the first teachers of the [Samaveda], who transmitted the [Sama] recensions of their respective schools to their disciples. It also lists the names of ten [Pravachanakaras] the second line of teachers, who propagated the [Saman] learning among the adherents of the [samaveda]. She [Shakhas] of the [Samaveda] were named after the original teachers and out of these 13 mentioned by name, only three, namely [Kauthuma], [Ranayaniya] and [Jaiminiya] or [Talavakara], have now survived. The Vamsha [Brahmana] of the [Kauthuman-[Ranayaniya] recension maintain the records of lineage of the Rishis through whom the learning of the [Samaveda] passed on to the [samagacharyas] noted in the list of [Acharyas] mentioned in the [Samatarpana]. These two lists commence from [Brahma] [Svayambhu], followed by the names of six divinities in the line and then reaching [Kashyapa], the great semi-mythical] Rishi, to whom tradition has ascribed a prominent part inthe creation of all kinds of beings, including gods and demons. The difference between the Kauthuma and the [Ranayaniya] recensions is very slight and they have many things in common including the [Brahmanas], lakshana granthas etc. In the South, the followers of the Kauthuma unwittingly have long adopted the [Shrautasutra] of the[Ranayaniyas] for-saking their own [Latyayana] [Shrauta-Sutra] much against the Vedic tradtion. Among these recensions the Kauthuma is the most popular one, with its followers found in Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Andhra in the South, in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West, and in Bihar and Bengal in the North-East. Again this is the only [Shakha] which has preserved the rare note, Krusta, of the [Saman] gamut. The [Ranayaniya is found today only in the South,-in Shimoga and North Canara districts of Karnataka, in northern Andhra and southern Orissa. The [Jaiminiya] [Shakha] is confined to Kerala and Tamil Nadu called Choliyapatters in Palghat and in Chidambaram. To the students of occultism and secret doctrine this [shakha] provides enough material for study and research. The [Samaveda is made up of hymns of ninth Mandala of the Rigveda and hymns scattered in its other Mandalas-all dedicated to Soma. The purpose of this redaction was to bring all the hymns pertaining to Soma in one collection for the convenience of singer-priests in Soma sacrifices. The [ganas] of [Gramegeya] and [Aranyegeya] form the basic collection called [Prakritigana] or [archetypes] of [ganas], to which the [Uttaragana] based on the [Uttararchika] is adapted. The marked difference between the melodies of [Purvarchika] and Uttararchika] is that the former is constituted ona single verse basis while the latter on units of three verses. The [Uttaragana] is divided into two sections known as [Uha] and [Uhya] or [Rahasya]; the first is adapted to teh [Gramegeya] while the second to [Aranyegeya]. Thus the [Uttaragana] closely follows the [Purvagana] in its structure, divisions and notations including the melodic notes. While [Purvagana] forms part of the [svadhyaya], like the [Samhitas], which are considered to be [Apaurusheya], meaning thereby that they were not composed by the Rishis but revealed to them by [Brahna], whereas the [uttara-gana] was beleived to have been composed by the [acharyas] for liturgical purpose by adapting them to the [Purvagana]. Hence, they are called [Uhaganas], adapted melodies. The [Uha] and [Uhya] ganas of [Uttararchika] are divided into seven divisions namely [Dasharatra Samvatsara, Ekaha, Ahina, Sattra, Kshudra and Prayaschitta], clearly indicating the class of sacrifices at which they are generally executed. Since they are the products of the human mind, the [ganas] of the [uttararchika] are normally named after the Rsihis who had composed them. Each of these [ganas] is divided into five melodic units called Bhaktis to which two more Bhaktis namely [Hinkara] and [Omkara] are added-the former before the [prastava] and the latter before the [udgitha], -when the [saman] melodies are being executed in sacrificial rites by the singers. These five melodic units are named as [pratihara] and upadrava by pratihartar and lastly the [nidhana], the concluding unit of a [Samagana], by all the three in chorus. In sacrificial sessions this is done sitting under the [udumbara] tree in the [Yajnashala]. The [ganas] belonging to the [Gramegeya], as the word indicates, could be chanted in public but the [ganas] of [Aranyegeya], also called [rahasya], meaning secret, are to be studied and chanted away from the dusty path of life in a forest retreat in secrecy. This rule equally applies to teh [uha] and [uhya] or [rahasya] melodies of the [Uttaragana] since they were adapted to teh [Gramegeya] and Aranyegeya respectively. Therefore, these two collection of melodies namely Aranyegeya of the [Purvagana] and [Uhya] of theUttaragana are called [rahasyaganas], secret melodies. Because the recitation and transmission of these [ganas] are executed in secrecy, every care is taken to see that these [ganas] are not transmitted to undeserving disciples. Among these the Rathantara and Brihat are the two [Samans of great consequence, which are jealously guarded and kept secret by the [Samavedists] for reason of great spiritual potency and magic power attributed to these [ganas]. In the case of the Rathantara in particular, great care is taken while it is being sung on certain special occasions. The text of the Rathantara is replaced with the mystic sound bha while it is being chated in public, but at the same time the entire text of the [gana] is sung in mind so that no one can even surreptotiously learn the mystical [Saman] by overhearing it. The [gana] of which the text is not 'expressed' but concealed in [stobhas], mystic syllables, is known in [Saman] parlance as [aniruktagana], 'unexpressed melody'. Here, in this context, the [Brahmanas] caution the singer telling him that while replacing the consonants of the original melodies the vowels of those consonants should be carefully affixed to teh concerned[bhakara], thus impregnating them with full mystic potency and esoteric value of the original text of the melody. The svaras, (Vowels) are regarded as the lifebreath (Prana) of consonants and by transferring the vowels of the consonants of the melodic text, to the [bhakaras], the singer, in truth, transfers the full spiritual worth of the replaced melodic text to the [anirukta-gana], 'unexpressed melody', sung with original musical notes. The silent recitation of the mystic [Samans] is considered to be more effective since it is done with greater concentration of mind. Further the subtle vibration that is generated by the brain in this instance travels through the higher plane quicker in the right direction as projected by the mind. In the mechanical recitation audible to others this may not happen. For this reason, a student is always initiated in secrecy and the mantra, communicated to him by the guru, to begin with is to be recited in a low voice by him. But before he is left alone to do this, the guru sees that the mantra is correctly recited and the formalities are strictly followed by the initiated. The [Samaganas] are normally executed in order to create a congenial atmosphere by purifying the surroundings by means of the vibrational force generated by the [nada] of the [Samaganas], appropriate to the occasion. In this connection I must bring to the notice of readers that there are references in the Veda to some of the most secret melodies which are not known to any but to the great mystics who acquired these melodies through their [sadhana], their intensive spiritual exercise, by practising penance and medtation. These secret melodies revealed to the Rishis, bowever, are not recorded in teh books of [ganas] nor are they based on teh known Vedic texts; hence their structure, musical notation, the gamut of [Saman] notes are not known to any but the [Sadhakas] in this line. In fact these secret melodies are also called as [anrcam sama], a [gana] sung not on Vedic text, meaning a [gana] entirely sung on stobhas, the mystical syllables, not recorded in any Vedic text or a [gana] tuned to the melodic notes alone without articulate text. Therefore this [gana] is also called [ashariram sama], the [gana] having no visible physique i.e., the decipherable text, on which it is sung. ---------------------------------------------------------- THE BRAHMANAS OF THE SAMAVEDA ---------------------------------------------------------- The [Samaveda] has the largest number of [Brahmanas] unlike the other three Vedas, which have only one [Brahmana] each, for each of its recension. The Kauthuma-[Ranayaniya] recension, on the other hand, has as many as eight [Brahmanas]viz., (1) Tandyaor [Mahabrahmana], (2) sadvimsha [Brahmana], (3) [Samavidhana Brahmana] (4) [Arseya Brahmana (5) [Devatadhyaya Brahmana] (6) [Chandogya Brahmana] (7) [Samhitopanishad Brahmana] and (8) Vamsha Brahmana. Among these the Samhitopanishad, [Devatadhyaya], and the [Samavidhana] appear to be common to all three recensions, viz., Kauthuma, [Ranayaniya] and [Jaiminiya]. all these [brahmanas] are composed in [Sutra] style, with practically no archaic vocabulary or Vedic usages and to a very great extent, theyadhere to the grammatical rules of [Panini]. Further, the contents of some of the [Brahmanas] of the [Samaveda] make even a confirmed traditional pandit raise his eyebrows as to the propriety of these texts being included in the rank of theological tratises. For example, the [Samavidhana Brahmana] treats a number of rites meant for unholy purposes, including those for enticing women, acquiring magic power, locating the hidden wealth etc. They are performed with only one aim i.e., to gain one's ends in view, not quite commendable, to satisfy one's base aspirations and enjoy mundane life, ephemeral gains and worldly position. This [Brahmana], after a brief speculation on cosmogony, glorifies the [Samaganas] stating that the chants of the [Samaveda] are the source of life-energy for the entire universe and its creator. It prescribes rites and vratas which are meant for those who are not eligible to perform the regular sacrifices, and for the persons who have broken away from the Vedic tradition. By performing the rites prescribed in the [samavidhana Brahmana] the persons, who are otherwise unfit to perform sacrifices, can achieve the same ends as those that are gained by performing the regular relevant Vedic sacrifices. it also prescribes rites for those who. on account of their innate impurity, [aputatva], are forbidden to perform any Vedic rite. The [Devatadhyaya] and [Arseya Brahmanas] are, again, the works of [Anukramani] type, listing the names of th [Samans] along with the basic reas but cover only the [Purvarchka]. The [Devatadhyaya] lays down the criterion for deciding the deity of [Samaganas]. The Samhitopanishad Brahmana] strikes a different note with its promise to deal with the secret aspects of [samhitas], the collections of verse, grouped together for various purposes. In conclusion, it emphasises the responsibilities of teachers and taught, mainly for the preservation of the great tradition of the [samaveda] and teh secret doctrine reflected therein, through the chosen line of disciples. The [Tandya Brahmana], also known as [Mahabrahmana], deals with the Soma sacrifices and describes the order of arrangement of the verses in particular forms known as stomas and [vistutis] for being chanted in sacrifices. The [Shadvimsha Brahmana], which is only a continuation of the [Tandya], treats the remaining soma sacrifices and in its last chapter it deals with omens and minor expiatory rites for averting evil or calamity. Among the [Brahmanas] of the Kuthuma-[Ranayaniya] recensions the [Samavidhana] and the last chapter of [sadvimsha], named [Adbhuta], prescribe the rites in which [samans] are sung for ephemeral gains, atonement to set off the effects of evil spirits, bad omens etc., while the other [Brahmanas ] of this recension confine themselves to the subjects which fall legitimately within limits of theological treatises. For a student of religion these two [Brahmanas] provide material that deals with primitive belief, magical rites etc., in which the [saman] melodies were executed for ulterior purposes, to gain worldly power and pleasure, to attain supernatural power as a means for the fulfilment of a man's lust to be wealthy, to acquire hidden treasure, to destroy whatever one disliked, to walk in space, to entice women of one's choice etc. The [Brahmanas] of this recension thus exposing the primitive customs and superstitions of a primitive society of the pre-Vedic period, that have come fown from antiquity, stand alone in the [saman] literature transgressing the legitimate boundary of theological treatises that deal with sacrificial rites and ceremonies. We may point out in this connection that among the Veda it is only the [Samaveda] that has so many [Brahmanas] ascribed to it with titles suggestive of the topics dealt with therein,whereas the [Brahmanas] of the other Veda streat exhaustively all the topics that legitimately fall within their jurisdiction and include all those topics within the compass of a single titlw. The [Jaiminiya] recension has three [Brahmanas] as available at present. They are; (1) the [Jaiminiya Brahmana]. 92) [jaiminiya Arseya] Brahmana]and(3)[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana], is the most important and anique work in the entire range of [Brahmana] literature. It contains rich material dealing with metaphysics, philosophy and obscure religious practices, and as such it is of equal importance to the students of religion and obscure religious ceremonies as well as to those of philosophy and esoteric doctrine. In fact the [Jaiminiya] upanisad [Brahmana] is more of the nature of an Upanisad, the secret doctrine, than of a [Brahmana], that deals with ritual dogmas and sacrificial formulas. In the light of the contents of this work it is not correct to include it among the Vedic theological treatises and the word [Brahmana] should be explained in the context as a work that descibes Brahman, the Supreme Spirit. The [Jaiminiya] Upanishad [Brahman], further, constitutes a mine of legends, historical and mythical, some of which are found in no other Vedic works; for instancethe spirit of a person, long dead, appearing in astral body and conversing with the people; and an enigmatic person looking almost like an apparition lying near the ashes ofthe burnt body in a crematorium and offering to officiate as a priestsinger in some oblcure sacrifice; and lastly the strange practice of retreating to a forbidden place like cremation ground along with one's wife for performance of penance and meditation-all these indeed sound very horrible if not fantastic but are clearly mentioned in the [Jaiminiya] upanisad Brahmana. From all these we may say that this [Brahmana] occupies a unique place inthe ancient Indian literature. it comprises magic cult, philosophical speculation, metaphysics, mythical legends historical episodes-all not without a tinge of mystery-and they are expressed often in a language replete with archaic vocabulary, unfamiliar phrases and syntactic constructions not observing the [Paninian] norm, and lastly the obscure usages and terms not easily understood except by those who are initiated into the mysteries of esoteric doctrine. Some of the episodes narrated here at once take us to a time and place far removed from ours, where these obscure cults were once practised in secrecy. 12 THE SOMA SACRIFICES The sacrificial cult and the [Yajnasamasthas] are as old as the Vedas. The first sacrifice according to the Rigveda was performed by the Gods, in which, Purusha, the universal soul, was offered as oblation, and out of which the entire universe evolved. The Yajurveda and the [Samaveda] were compiled in their present form clearly to fulfil the requirements of the ritual part of Vedic sacrifices. The arrangement of the mantras in these two [Samhitas] in chapters, then in sections, strictly follows the order of the rites in which these mantras are employed in respective sacrifices. The sacrificial sessions are counducted jointly by the three teams of priests, four for each of the three Vedas, guided and supervised by the [Brahma-gana] and assisted by the subordinate functionaries. These teams are lead by the Adhvaryu, the chief priest under the supervision of a Sadasya.well-versed in the domain of Vedic recitation and sacrificial procedures, or of [Brahma], a priest learned in all four Vedas, particularly in the Atharvaveda, and in their ancillaries, who is charged with the duty of over-all supervision of the entire sacrificial proceedings as also their prompt execution for successful completion of [sacrifice]. [Brahma], the chief of the supervisory staff, and an adept in [Para] and [Apara vidyas], sits by the [Yajamana] in the [Yajnashala]during the performance of sacrifice as an adviser and also protector of [Yajamana] and his wife as also of the personnel engaged in sacrifice, by warding off bad influence of evil spirits over them. In sacrificial sessions the [Udgatr-gana] the team of Samavedic priests comprising [Prastota], [Udgata], [Pratihara] and Subrahmanya, the team of Rigveda priests consisting of Hotr, [Maitravaruna], [Acchavaka] and [Gravastut], and the Adhvaryu-gana theteam of Yajurvedic priests comprising Adhvaryu, [Pratiprasthatr], Nestr and Unnetr, have their own functions besides their primary duties such as chanting of mantras from their respective Vedas at the Prescribed time and place in the course of performance of a sacrifice. The team of [Samavedic] Priests i.e., thye [Udgatr-gana] is primarily concerned with singing [Saman] chants mostly sitting near the post of a fig tree in the [sadas], as also performing the duties assigned to them collectively or individually to each member of the team. Lastly comes the Brahma-gana consisting of Brahman, Brahmamacchamsin, [Agnidhra] and Potr whose main function is to supervise the proceedings and correct them whenever necessary,and maintain the sacrificial fire through the sacrificial session. Thus the personnel of a Soma sacrifice consists of seventeen ritviks, including a Sadasya, besides the minor functionaries to assist the officiationg Priests. These ritviks, includinga Sadasya, besides the minor functionaries to assists the officiating priests. These ritviks collectively share the responsibility along with the [Yajamana] and his wife for successful completion of a Soma sacrifice. The [Sama] [Brahmanas], the [Shrauta][Sitras] and the [Arsheya-kalpa] list a very large number of Soma sacrifices lasting from one day to one full year and then tp several years giving full details of complicated ritual procedures. The [Bhagavad-Gita] refers to these sacrificial institutions disapprovingly and says "Those whose minds are carried away by such words, who are deeply attached to pleasure and worldly prosperity, cannot attain the determinate intellect concentrated on God. (Bh.G.I I.44). Among these innumerable Soma sacrifices performed to fulfil a multitude of objectives there is a Soma sacrifice called [Sarvasvara] which is performed by a sacrificer inviting death to himself on the altar on the day when Soma is pressed. This is a sort of "suicide" attempted by ritualist something resembling [samlekhana], permitted in Jainism, and is an index showing to what extent an indulgent ritualist can be driven to fulfil his avarice and ambition. The sacrifices of this sort created a strongpublic aversion towards the entire [Yajnasamasthas] in general resulting in the gradual loss of public interest in these rituals. The entire [Saman] literature with the exception of [Jaiminiya] Upanishad [Brahmana] and its Upanishads, is concerned directly and indirectly with matters connected with the [yajnasamasthas] and the sacrificial procedures. The rituals involving a number of priests, numerous recitations and chants, libation of soma juice and oblation of enormous amounts of ghee, cake and other substances, were too complicated and some of the acts that have infiltrated into the proceedings cannot stand the test of rational thinking. The ultimate aim of many of these rites is to attain heaven after death and the animals killed in the sacrifices for offering oblation to the Gods were assured the privilege of having a place in heaven by the [yajamana] in heaven and aeaiting his arnival. Further, the rites incorporate the construction of several fire altars including a main altar in the shape of a flying bird with more than 1000 bricks of various shapes and sizes piled up in layers; the real and esoteric meaning of many of these procedures and sacrificial acts, utensils, material and the animals named in different sacrifices were long forgotten, and the execution of many of these symbolical acts were physically carried out without understanding their real significance. One is simply left wondering and confused when one goes through all these elaborate and spectacular arrangements involving an enormous amount of labout, hardship,learning, time and expenditure. It appears that the whole institution of sacrificial cult has long derailed from its right track. The Vedic rishis; whenever they explained the ancient traditional sacred literature imbibed with hidden meaning, repeatedly reming us that the Gods are fond of expressing things indirectly in symbolic language concealing the real import thereof. It is difficult 'to press out' as they say, 'the secrets' from the language of a mystic. Gods, meaning the enlightened ones, the Vedic sages say, simply hate to speak about [Brahmavidya] in plain language-[Parokshapriya devah pratyakshavidvishah]. In this connection we are reminded of the instruction given to the students in one of the owrks on [Hathayoga], in a code language which is understood only by the initiated in this line. The instructions in the literatureof this type which are passed on to the worthy wrapped in secret code language not decipherable by the uninitiated. The neophytes in the discipline of [Hathayoga] are asked to eat "beef' every day and criminally assault 'a virgin widow". This instruction wrapped in dangerous code language, if not correctly understood, will bring utter ruination to the career of a [Sadhaka]. The great mystics of the Upanishads, mostly the royal sages of the past, had mastered the secrets of [Brahmavidya] and passed them on to posterity. They belittled the [dravya-yajna] but practised the [karmayoga] with complete detachment, as [Janaka] did in those days, and even the [Brahmarshis] like[Yajnavalkya] and others resorted to the courts of Rajarshis seeking clarfification of their doubts inmetaphysics and guidance in their [Sadhana]. ----------------- THE SOMA ----------------- Soma is the main god of the [Sama-Samhita]. He is celebrate in over 2500 verses in the [Samaveda] and a number of stray verses and passages in the Rigveda, apart from its 9 th Mandala, which is exclusively dedicated to Soma. among the Vedic gods Somastands thrid in importance, yet it is difficult to characterize him in definite terms. His abode is in the highest heaven in the lap of stars; many of his attributes are common with the other Vedic divinities of heavenly domain and above all he has been assigned the functions of cosmic nature, - all this would make it extremely difflcult even to a confirmed ritualsit to identify Soma with the terrestrial plant of that name, which is crushed for juice in spectacular sacrificial rituals, lasting several days, months and even years, involving elaborate preparation and complicated procedures and a large amount of material collected from different sources. in sacrifices, the Soma juice is offered to God thrice a day during the morning, mid-day and evening litanies and the remainder of the offerings is drunk by the priests in wooden cups specially designed for this purpose. The juice is described in the veda as most exhilarating, intoxicating and sweet, but the juice of the plant identified as Soma later, which is offered in sacrifices, is insipid and uninviting. It is said in clear terms that Soma is a celestial deity, a child of heaven, living in the highest heaven and driving a celestial car with seven wheels and five reins. He is said further to be the lord of quarters and his acts in particular, of generating the two worlds, of creating or stablising heaven and the earth, of supporting heaven and lastly placing light in the Sun, are soem of the attributes which prove beyond a shadow of doubt his indisputable divine nature. not with-standing all these significant attributes, Soma has still successfully defied our understanding of his identity or personality. Among the Vedic gods he is indeed the most mystical and evasive divinity. His habitation in the highest ever-brigh region of heaven, beyond the realm of stars, was fixed by none other then Rita, the great cosmic order, whenceSoma observes the functioning of the cosmic order in teh entire universe. In this context I am reminded of the famous [Surya] hymn of the Rigveda (R V.X.85) which gives clear insight into the nature and secrets of this mysterious consmic divinity. The apparent subject of this mystic hymn is the marriage of [Surya], the only daughter of the Sun, to be married to Soma, the cosmicdeity. "As the earth is held in its place by truth, as the heaven is held by the Sun, as the [Adityas] keep their position by cosmic order so doth Soma stand on the top of heaven. Thus begins the hymn. It further tells us of the greatness of the earth, the strength of the [Adityas], the lustre of the constellation in teh highest heaven which areallsustained by the mysteries of Soma, who lives amidst the constellation far beyond in the third heaven. The Vedic sage clearly says in thus hymn that it is only the Brahmins well-learned in the [Brahma-Vidya], not an ordinary priests, who can know and identifywhat is Soma in truth. He says Soma is wrogly identified with a terrestrial plant of that name by the ritualists who crush the palnt and drink its juice assuming it to be the real Soma and believing that it would confer immortality on them. In fact no one, the Rishi knowledge of soma have been preserved in secret codes, [acchid-vidhana] as it is said, by the sages who have realised the secrets of the mysterious [Brihat-sama], and protected these secrets from falling into the hands of the undesirable elements. "Certainly no ordinary mortal", reassures us the Rishi again "can so much as think of tasting even a drop of Soma". Here [Surya], the bride, symbolises the inexhaustible cosmic energy discharged by the Sun, and Soma, the mysterious Vedic divinity dwelling in the highest heaven, represents the immortal life force, [Amrita] mentioned in the Veda, that pervades the universe and keeps it alive and frsh. The Sun made an attempt, as narrated in the Veda, to unite these two cosmical forces for the well-being of the universe. Soma is said to have been brought down by the great golden bird at the behest of sages and Gods who after drinking the Soma juice became immortal. A yogi in the state of [nirvikalpa-samadhi] is said to taste the sap of Soma or Amrita when all differentiation in his thought melts aways and he identifies himself with the [Brahma] Supreme. The disciples at this stage sitting by the Guru recite the [Brihat Saman], mystic melody with which [Bhagavan Shri] krishna identified himslef in the [Bhagawad-Gita]. In this connection a word about the [Brhat-sama] of great magic potencies may not be out of place of a total of 2629 melodies of the [Samaveda] there are a few which are believed to possess great occult power and they are found inthe books of [Aranyegeya] and [Uhya]. The [ganas] of these two books are studied in secluded places far away from the [gramas], busy human settlements. Hence they are both called [rahasya-ganas], melodies sung in secrecy. These [ganas] were preserved with great care by the teachers and are passed on only to the deserving disciples, chosen from among the large number of students after close observation and test. this was possible since the [Brahmacharins], the students of the Veda, lived in the [Ashrams] strictly under the supervision of their guru and kulapati who could assess the intellectual and spiritual achievement of each of them besides their integrity and capability for such pursuit. "A learned teacher of esotericism may prefer to die without imparting his secret knowledge to any rather then pass it on toan undeserving student". says the Samhitopanishad[Brahmana]. This is the stict instruction given to the teachers of the esoteric doctrine in the scriptures. The Brihat and Rathantara re two of such [Samans] of great magic power. Besides the [ganas] listed in the books of [Aranyageya] and [Uhya], there are still many more [ganas] which are strictly kept secret by a Siddha, till he comes across a true chela, fully qualified to receive the secret doctrine from his Master. These [ganas] are not recorded in any book, nor are they based on known Vedic texts. Theyare sung either on [stobhas], the syllables or words or phrases of magic power-or on simple gamutof [Sama] melodies. These [ganas] are known as [asharira-ganas], melodies devoid of physical frame-formless, or [anrcam sama], a [Saman] not based on [rca], Vedic text. It is clear from the foregone description that the Soma described in the Veda is not the terrestrial plant which can be easily pluked and curshed for juice. It is obviously a worng identification and the Vedic Soma is definitely a divinity belonging to the dominion of the highest realm of the celestial region. But it must be understood, in this connection, that in [dravya-yajna], the material sacrifice, the materials including the Soma, collected and set at teh marked places in the [Yajna-Shala], sacrificial enclosure, the erection of Vedi in teh shape of a flying eagle, the fire altar' with layers of bricks of varied sizes, ritviks, the presiding priests, masters of Veda-trayi, the triple knowledge, with a super-priest significantly designated asBrahman to control and rule the whole procedures and again the premises significantly known as [deva-yajana] selected for the performance of teh elaborate ceremonies-, are all representative of something else beyond, voicing and communicating, sometimessilently, the great Vedic tradition-it is a visual enactment of the great cosmic sacrifice referred to in the Vedas as performed by the [Devas] marking the evolution of the universe. 13 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SAMAVEDA From the brief survey of the [Samavedic] literature made in the last chapter we have seen that the entire [Kauthuma-Ranayeniya] recension and part of the [Jaiminiya are lost in the wilderness of sacrificial institutions i.e., in the weary dusty of [Karmakanda]. The supreme and ultimate goal of the followers of this path is heaven, and they, obsessed by lust for pleasure and enjoyment, cannot see beyond the realm of heaven. The [Bhagawad Gita] says "those who are obsessed by desire and devoted to the letter of the Veda, who look upon heaven as the supreme goal and argue that there is nothing beyond heaven are unwise. They utter flowery speech recommending many acts of various kinds for attainment of pleasure and prosperity with rebirth as their fruit. Those whose minds are carried away by such words and who are deeply attached to pleasure and worldly prosperity, cannot attain the determinate intellect concentrated on God." There are mainly two paths running paralles which are open to a [Sadhaka],-one is of karma and the other is of [jnana]. There are several bylanes joining these two main highways, all figuratively called [yajnas], sacrifices in out scriptures. The [Bhagawad Gita] broadly classifies these [Yajnas]into four categories namely, [Dravya-Yajna], Tapo yajna, Yoga-[Yajna] and Jnana-Yajna]. It says at teh end that, among these, [Jnana-Yajna] is by far superior to all others since allactions, without any exception, culminate in [Jana] alone at the end. These two paths are descibed as Krishna (Black) and Shukla (White) respectively in the [Bhagawad-Gita], the first leading to heaven and the second to the Supreme Brahman. Those who have chosen the path of karma have to come back as soon as the exchange currency, earned by them by them by virtue of their good actions, is spent out in heaven. but those who have chosen the path of [jnana] do not return once they reach their ultimate destination i.e. the [param dhama]. The Yjurveda and the [Samaveda] of the Kauthuma and [Ranayaniya] recensions have chosen the path of Karma as they deal mainly with the [Dravya-Yajna], the material sacrifice, which [Bhagavan] [Shri] Krishna has definitely disapproved of as not worth pursuing by a [Sadhaka] who is in quest of the Ultimate Truth. But [Bhagavan Shri Krishna], at the same time, speaking of Vibhutis, the media through which he has manifested his divine power, has clearly said that among the Vedas he is the [Samaveda], among the [samans] he is the [Brihat Sama]; among the metres he is the [Gayatri; among the words he is the mystic syllable. Om, and lastly among sacrifices he is the [japa-yajna]. All these aforesaid Vedic [vibhutis] form the constituent parts of one whole i.e., of the [samaveda]. Among the three recensions of the [Samaveda] now available to us, the [Jaiminiya] recension alone, there too its [Jaiminiya-Upanishad Brahmana] (JUB) that describes the supremacy of the [Gayatri ganas], the mystic syllable Om and its japa, answer partly, if not wholly, the equations made by [Bhagavan] [Shri] Krishna of Himself with the [Samaveda]. -------------------------------------------------------------- THE JAIMINIYA UPANISHAD BRAHMANA -------------------------------------------------------------- The JUB is one of the most important [Brahmanas] with its considerable archaic and obscure vocabulary, grammatical perculiarities, mythical and historical legends, reflecting some of the very ancient faiths and cults. It is much older than any of the [Brahmanas] of the Kauthuma school and could be ranked among those which are considered to be the oldest. the JUB has recorded some of the very anicent religious faiths that are found in no other theological treatises e.g., the reappearance of the spirit of the dead in astral body, and the spirit instructing and guiding those who were in search of learned preceptor priests to guide them in their pursuit of [sadhana] to the right path in order to acquire occult power and wisdom. There are also some references to the Tantric practices i.e., a [Sadhaka] resorting to the cremation groundand performing secret rites at odd hours of the night and doing it near the ashes of the cremated bodies for attainment of supernatural power ordesired objectives. the JUB begins with a brief nattation of the story of creation , which unlike the cosmagonic legends nattated in other [Brahmanas], is mainly concerned with the triple knowledge, [trayi vidya], by means of which [Prajapati] is said to have conquered this universe. There are a number of legends and brief descriptions of events all of which go to glority directly or indirectly the [Gayata] [Saman] and the mystic syllable Om. It says that [Prajapati] fashioned the earth, atmosphere and the Sky out of the essence extracted from the three Vedas by uttering [Vyahrtis], namely the mystic syllables [Bhuh], [Bhuvah], and [Suvah]. At each stage of creation [Prajapati] performs penance and sacrifice i.e., he engages himself in deep meditation penetrating further and further into the secrets of the mysteries of the universe, because knowledge, says the [Brahmana], that does not stand the test pf penance and sacrifice, will lead a [Sadhaka] nowhere and bring him nothing. It glorifies the mystic syllable Om which it says, si the life-breath of everything in the universe, and pervades the entire universe, visible and invisible. It is represented by fire on teh earth, by air in the atmosphere, by the sun in the sky and lastly, by life-breath that pervades everywhere. It burns even beyond the highest point above the sun, even beneath the lowest point below the atmosphjere, untouhed by miseries and sufferings, and uncontaminated by evil and sin. The ultimate aim of a [Sadhaka] is to reach the domin of Om by crossing the endless chain of birth and death and the miseries and sins of the [Samsara], the ever-changing world. " Om is the supreme goal aspired by all", says the [Brahmana], "which one must try to reach". The mystic syllable Om is frequently identified with [Gayatri], the metre, and also with the [mantra] of that name on which the first [saman] was composed. The [saman] built on this mantra, stands alone in the beginning, heading the list of [samaganas] in the book of [Gramegeya] and is considered a class by itself. The glorification of [Gayatri] in JUB ultimately culminates in its equation with the Supreme Brahman. In its chapter dealing with the lineage of Rishis it says that the [Gayatri] represents the supreme wisdom and that, one, who by performing penance and sacrifice realises the secrets of [Gayatri], becomes immortal; attains Godhood. [Prajapati], the Gods and the Rishis in the past achieved immortality by means of the supreme wisdom achieved through the practice of concentrated japa of the [Gayatri-tad etad amrtam gayatram etena vai prajapatir amrtatvam agacchat/ etena devah/ etanarsayah// (I I I. 3.1.1). The knowledge of the immortal [Gayatra] [saman] was handed down by Brahma directly to [Prajapati] who passed it on to posterity through the lineage of [Parameshthin, Savitar, Agni and Indra, all divinities- and finally it reached Kashyapa, the first Rishi and human agency in this long line. From him the knowledge of [Gayatra] [saman] travelled through along line Rishis till it reached Lauhitya Gupta, the last Rishi in the great lineage of the [Samavedic] seers, who was a Vaishya by caste. it may be noted in this connection that no caste, sex or country of origin ever debarred a person from seeking the path of [Brahmavidya] or occupying the highest position of a guru who preserved and propagated the Vedic tradtition. Among the Vedic Rishis and the [Acharyas] who were designated as [Samasampradaya-pravartakes], there were Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and even [Shudras] besides the Rishis born of mixed caste, Samkara, and those hwo came from the countries like [Kanboja] and [Madra] to this land seeking knowledge of the esoteric doctrine preserved in the Vedas. The JUB concludes the chapter on the lineage with the statement: [tad etad amrtam gayatram atha yanyanyani gitani kamyanyeva tani / Kamyanyeva tani // (I I I . 7.5.1) i.e., this is the great immortal [Gayatrasaman; and then whatever the other [samans] there were, they were all only [Kamyani] i.e., recited with certain earthy desores amd expectations and hence cannot be termed immortal; cannot be included among the mustic songs having lasting spiritual value. Among the beings created by [Prajapati], the Gods and Asuras were the first creations, the homosapiens, if we could use this term in this context, who were immediately followed by Death and Diseases. Gods and Asuras frightened by the approaching deathand diseases sought [Prajapati's] advice in order to escape from the affliction of these dreadful scourges. [Prajapati] instructed them to repeat the [Gayatri] mantra. The Gods, who were born mortals, followed the instructions and attained immortality, whereas the Asuras didn't since it didn't suit their boastful innate temperament and their insuppressible egoism. In another legends, the Gods, being chased by death and evil, are said to have complained to [Prajapati] against these destructive forces, which were created by him immediately after them. They wanted to escape from them both; wanted to be immune to death and sin. [Prajapati] advised them to hide in the metres of [Samans], but death chased them as they moved from metre to metre; ultimately leaving the metres alone they hid in the tones of [samagana], but there too they were chased by the formidabledeath and sin. Then, abandoning the [Samagana] altogether, they turned immortal; became immune to death and sin:- tad Om ity etad aksaram samarohat /etad eva'ksaram trayi-vidya yad ado'mrtam rapati tato mrtyuna papmana vyavartanta//(1.4.4.10) The [Brahmana] advises us that we too can similarly become immortal, and free from all evil and sins, provided we follow the advice given by [Prajapati] to the Gods who, though they were born,morysl, became immortal by entering into the secrets of Om through constant practice of penance and sacrifice, as directed by [Prajapati]. The cosmological speculations in the other Vedas sound at each stage a note of despair and diffidence and express inability to solve the riddles of creation and also doubt whether even God in the highest heaven could solve them at all, whereas the cosmollogical legends in the JUB are definite in thie narration of the process of evolution of the Universe and they emphasize one factor throughout-that the mystic syllable Om was the primordial cause for bringing the universe into manifestation after each[Pralaya]. This [Brahmana], it may be noted, is least concerned with the institution of the material sacrifice. It casually does refer to sacrifices but in a different sense. It speaks of the tapo-yajna which [Prajapati] performed again and again in his ceaseless efforts to get a clear understanding of the significance of this mystic syllable of inexhaustible resources and energy. Narrating the multiple process of creation by [Prajapati in several of its legends, the [Brahmana] emphasises the fact that the three-fold knowledge even after the accomplishment of the task of creation of the entire universe out of the sap extracted from the [trayividya] by [Prajapati] remained as full as before. On close investigationhe found that the mystic syllable Om hidden in the Vedas was the primary cause for its ever remaining full. He realized that the syllable Om is inseparably mixed up with the [Vedatrayi] and that Om is the Eternal Truth which pervades the entire universe and on which the whole universe is established: [tad etat satyam aksaram yad Om iti tasmin na'pah palashani apsu prthivi prthivyam ime lokah yatha Sucya palashani samtrnnani syuh evam eva tena'ksarene'me lokah samtrnnah (1.2.3; 2-3). The [Brahmana] frequently reminds us that the entire universe and everything therein, mortal and immortal, visible and invisible, that makes up the universe, are ultimately merged in the Eternal Om and become one with it. Om is truly the beginning and the end of creation (1.7.1; 1.9.1; 1.10.1). The JUB believes that the Nada, vibration or resonant sound wave, generated by each [saman] being all pervasice, produces the desired result. Hence its emphasis throughout is on maintaining the accuracy of the composition of the [saman] melodies and their flawless execution. It does not seem to have concerned itself so much with the material sacrifices and their formulas as with the mystic potency of the [saman] melody, which they would produce only if the compostition and execution of the [samans] were done accurately with every note thereof sung in its exact pitch and duration. The [Brahmana] in all its statements and narrations of legends and stories tries to bring home the implications and significance of the mystic syllable Om and the immortal [Gayatra saman]. The JUB is vibrant again and again with philosophical speculations marked by its frequent meta-physical statements. The Jub tells us that the Om has two aspects, onw is manifest and the other is unmanifest. The unmanifest Om is eternal, Amrita, into which at the end of each kalpa, [trayividya], the universal knowledge, the visible and invisible universe, in short the abstract and concrete manifestation of [Prakriti] being reduced into indiscriminate [nada], enter or merge and disappear into cosmic vacuum. The manifest Om is the physical articulatory sound which we hear when we utter this mystic syllable. Om constitutes three distinct phonemic sounds namely a, a guttaral vowel, u, a labial vowel and m, a labial nasal consonant, - all these compounded into the word Om. This is the physical analysis of this mystic speech but the cumulative vibration of Om cannot be analysed in a phonetic laboratory. The first sound that is audible to us when Om is uttered generates vibration which is unmanifest and remains eternal. This vibration, like the [mahadavyakta], is the repository of everything where the abstract universal knowledge, into which the entire creation reduced into subtle [nada] merges at the end of each Kalpa-that is exactly what [pralaya] literally means. In this contexts, it may be noted that eternity and immortality are two relative terms, not absolute. Absolute eternity is beyond our expression; it relates to unchanging and unchageable unmanifest Brahman. "That supreme divine substance which does not perish even though all beings perish", says the [Bagawad Gita]:-- [Avyaktad] vyaktayah [sarvah] Pra-bhavanty ahar [agame]/ [ratry][agame] [Pra-liyante] [tatrai'va] vyakta-[samjnake// [bhuta-gramah] sa [eva'yam] [bhutva] [bhutva] [Pra-liyate]/ [ratry] [agame'vashah] [partha] prahavaty ahar [agame]// paras [tasmat]tu [bhavo'nyo'vyakto'vyaktat] [sanatanah]/ yah sarvesu [bhavesu] nashyatsu na vinshyati// (VI I I. 18-20). It is humanly impossible to cover all the important points of any Veda in a brief survey. In the foregoing pages I have given a brief background of the [SamaVeda] so that onw could get a clear idea of the vast literature that makes up this Veda of mystic songs. Now, in the end, I am reminded of the introductory remarks made by [Patanjali], the great grammarian, in his [Mahabhasya]. He said' the preceptor was none other then the great Brihaspati, guru of the Gods; the student was no less a personality then Indra, the ruler of heaven, and the time prescibed for the study of grammar was one thousand years. yet they could not reach the end. If this be the dimension of [Vyakarana], which is only one of the six [Vedangas] the so called limbs of the Veda, one can easily guess the magnitude of the Veda, the vastness of the Vedic literature primarily covering the four Veda and the Upanishads, the ancillary works, and then the traditional magnetic line extending to the epics and the Puranas,-all representing an unbroken integrated stream, fo teh great heritage of India, the divine [Mandakini], that came down from the lofty altitude of the plane of the eternal [Nada] Brahma, i.e., the Unmanifested [Omkara]. A [sadhaka] who has realised Brahman, who hasknown [Brahman], (Brahma-vid) by studying and understanding the Veda and has reached the higher spiritaual plane, attaining the status of a [Jivanmukta], achieves salvation while living in this mundane world itself long before discarding his gross and astral body. Manu referring to such an accompkished [sadhaka], who has attained the highest objective in his [sadhaka], who has attained the highest objective in his [sadhana], says:- that a person, whether he lives in the busy dusty path of life or isolates himself living somewhere in a remote heritage in a forest retreat, away from the main stream of life, can achieve the state of perfectness and become fit to merge with the BRAHMAN if only he has realized and imbibed the spirit of secret doctrine concealed in the Vedas and teh [shastras]. In Vedic terminology such a person of great purity and perfection is known as a [sadhya] who after departing from the terrestrial plane, would live in the ever-shining thrid heaven beyond the solar region till the end of the Kalpa, a kind of transit camp for such like before his final complete merger in [Eternal Avyakta] losing his identity,-[nama-rupe-vihaya]-as said in the UIpanishad. PART FOUR 14 VEDIC COSMOLOGY The univers ewas born billions of years ago. Yet the origin and evolution of the universe have puzzled the mind of thinkers, scientists, philosophers and the mystics alike since the dawn of civilization. No final word has so far been said by any on this subject and the chapter on origin and evolution of the Universe in the language of scientists, or creation of the universe in the language of the ancient thinkers yet remin inconclusive. The Big Bang theory explaining that the universe was born in an explosion of elementary particles and radiation out of which stars, galaxies, quasars, black holes, and planets scientists, but not without some caution and reservation. However, controversies among the scientists-astrophysists and cosmologists,-still persist. The ancient thinkers invariably attributed the origin of the universe to the Supreme Being. Theybelieved that He was responsible for creation, protection and destruction of everything in the universe and ultimately of the universe itself. The Vedic Rishis thought over the matter very deeply and seized of the problem with some concern and diffidence as is evident from their speculations on the existence of the Supreme Being, from their hypothesis on teh origin of the [Prapancha], i.e., this expanding universe, its contents as refer to a hymn from the Rigveda composed by [Prajapati] [Paramesthin] himself, who was charged with the duty of primeval creations in the Vedas. Actually there are altogether four hymns (RV.X.129,130; 154,& 190) that exclusively deal with cosmogony besides a number of verses scattered here and there in the Veda that speak of cosmogony. These hymns named as [Bhavavrutta], give no names of the deity to whom they are dedicated. This itself is significant because the Vedic Rishis, about whom we have spoken earlier are generally described as [drastaro] [Smartarshca] meaning that they could see and also remember things, past, present and future transcending time and space. The Rishis in the second hymn that speaks of mystic cosmic sacrifice are classified into two categories as [manusyah rsayah] and [daivyah rsayah] and this hymn is primarily concerned with [Nadabrahma], the eternal vibration-sound waves, generated by the Vedic chants composed in different metres which were offered as oblation in the cosmic sacrifice out of which the universe is said to have been evolved, or born. Generally, as a rule, each Vedic hymn or verse invariably consists of three aspects. 1. The Rishi who composed it, 2. the deity to whom it is dedicated, and 3. the metre in which it is composed. All these three aspects provide the guidelines to get into the inner meaning of the relevant text. Here no name of the deity to whom it is dedicated is mentioned simply because the Rishi, who him-self is the primal creator, whose job is no more than of a technician, passing the film through the wheel does not know whether the universe in fact was created or evolved. He clearly says "Even the presiding deity of the universe does not know out of which this universe came into existence, whether it was made or evolved". Therefore, [Prajapati], the first creator in the lineage of Rishis, who was charged with the duty of creation or recreation, left the column meant for the name of deity blank,and put in brackets '[Bhava-vrttam]', which actually means an account of [Bhava], appearance or reappearance of the universe. The word [bhava] may mean repetition of evolution or creation-[bhavatiti bhavah]. since among the Vedic Rishis some believed in the theory of creation and destruction and some in the theory of evolution and dissolution, and some in the theory of evolution and dissolution, [Prajapati] confuses at the outset itself that the problem of cyclic phenomenon of this formidable cosmic event would ever remain unsolved, baffling the mind of all thinkers all the time. The Vedic Rishis say that they have come to this conclusion after having deeply thought over the subject and also going throug all the data, including those collected by the earlier Rishis aeons ago. In modern scientific terminology [Bhavavritta] may mean both cosmology, 'origin and history of the universe' as well as cosmology, 'origin and theory of the universe,'-it is thus both combined in one word, Vedic Sanskrit. These two hymns referred to above summarise the theories of evolution (visrishti) and dissolution (pralaya) of the universe as propounded by the Vedic Rishis. The first hymn briefly narrates in the language of the mystic scientists the concept of [Bhavavritta] based on the theory of evolution of primeval matter, i.e., the emergence of the material and anti-material universes (sat and asat) and the second in the language of the mustic poets (Kavis) based on the mystic cosmic sacrifice. Of these the first hymn cited above is an example par excellance for the finest piece of thought provoking mystic peotry composed in the form of questions and answers by no less a person than the first creator himself. Here the Rishi, fired with an intense desireto discover the truth, answers his own queries with a certain degree of despair, being unable to solve the riddle of origin and evolution of the universe. and ends with an epilogue: "he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not."-so [anga veda yadi va na veda]. The approach of the Vedic Rishis, it may be seen, to the subject of their investigation, in no way differs much from that of modern scientists. Whenever they faced the challenges in their search for truth, they tried to find out the discoveries made by the earlier thinkers on the problems that taxed their mind. They expressly mention how the modern intellectuals of their time who are referred to in the Veda as [adiras], [manisins] etc. meaning the bold rationalists, proceeded on their research in the field of hidden mysteries taking into account the progress in their investigations already made by their predecessors in the field. [Purvesam] [Pantham][anudrshya] [dhira] [anvalebhire][rathyo] [na] [rashmin]. In their search for truth the Rishis of yore relied on their intellect and reason as well as intuition and insight and tried to solve the riddles that baffled their mind. When we go through the Vedas it becomes evident that there existed advanced literaty activities prior to the Vedas which had maintained the records of investigations and discoveries made by the ancestors of the Vedic Rishis, the mystic scientists of the bygone age. The oral records of pre-Vedic literary activities were long lost in their entirety to posterity since all the Vedas in ancient times were preserved by word of mouth -[sarve vedah mukhato grahitah]. The famous [Nasadiya] hymn, referred to above, describes the situation that prevailed prior to the primordial creation. The words sat here stand for [vyakta], the manifest universe, and [a-sat ] for [a-vyakta], the invisible Prakriti. In modern scientific terms these two technical words may be equated with the material universe and anti-material universe respectively. The astrophysicists, though they have not ruled out the possibility of existence of anti-matter and anti-material unvierse altogether, have not yet been able to say definitely either way because of the lack of technology to study the anti-matter to their satisfaction. When matter and anti-matter rotating in opposite direction, but otherwise identical in nature, come into contact, it is said, collisions are possible in the boundaries of the universe and anti-universe resulting in the collapse and utter annihilation ofboth the universes. However, the Rsihis, the mystic scientists of Vedic and Pre-Vedic age while agreeing on the point of annihilation of the [vyakta] and [a-vyakta] universes, say that [Visrishti], emergence or evolution and [pralaya], mergence or dissolution are time-bound cosmic phenomena, and that these universes have finite life-time as ordained by the universal Order, which none can alter. These two universes at the time of [Mahapralaya], utter ruination of material and antimaterial universes merge in the Eternal [Avyakta], equated with the Supreme Being of the Vedantic philosophy. According to the Vedic concept these universes, visible and invisibie, ruled by [Brahma], the cosmic ruler, function in the most orderly manner-there is no confusion or chaos in the orderly functioning of the cosmos. The vyakta merges into the [a-vyakta] at the appointed time, i.e., at the end of the Kalpa and emerges out, at the dawn of the next [yuga]-the isotropic homogeneous universe comes into being with all its contents, stars, planets, galaxies etc., and the regions, terrestrial, atmospheric celestial etc. .......[Yatha-Purvam akalkayat /..." (RU.X.190.3) The universes, material and anti-material, have finite life-time but the Eternal [A-vyakta] is infinite,-not bound by time and space. The life-time of the visible material universe is measured by the day of [Brahma], which is known as a Kalpa of the duration of 1000 yugas being a period of 432 million years of mortals. Kalpa of equal duration constitutes his night. The visible univers etransformed into [avyakta] remains dormant waiting for the dawn of the next Kalpa. It must be noted that the [sat] and [a-sat], the visible and the invisible universes co-exist rotating in the wheel of [Kala] in this way and this cycle of cosmic events continues till the last day of [Brahma's] cosmic reign when ultimately [Brahma] completes his life-time measuring 100 [Brahmic] years, and then both material and anti-material universes in their entirety are annihilated with their contents and the beings living therein including gods, Siddhas, Brahma, the cosmic ruler, etc. -all ultimaterly merging in teh Eternity leaving no mark of their individual entity. When the material and anti-material universes are annihilated, nothing is left behind -neither the space, nor the contents abiding therein, nor the either, nor the reign of time and subsequently the question of mortality and immortality, day and night etc., does not arise -[nasad asin no sad asit tadanim nasid rajo no vyoma paro yat/... na mrtyur asid amrtam na tarhi na ratrya ahna asit praketah/- The [Brahmandas] in their entirely comprising innumerable solar systems just disappear. But nevertheless, at that time the Rishi makes it clear, that indefinable Great Eternal Life-Energy alone remains sign of life and except, and beyond this, nothing exists-[anid avatam svadhaya tad ekam tasmaddhanyan na parah kincanasa/. Here it must be noted that whenever reference is made to the indefinable Eternity the gender used is neutral, neither masculine nor feminine. The Rishi says that though it is breathless it is full of innate energy, in fact, it is inseparable from the universal energy. It may be noted in this connection that the Eternal A-vyakta is altogether different from the Vyakta and A-vyakta universes but at the same time these universes are within that great Eternal A-vyakta since nothing can exist without life-energy and that energy emanated from the Supreme Avyakta. Manu describing the situationthat prevailed prior to the evolution of the unvierse says that this unvierse enveloped in deep 'darkness' appeared, as if every thing was in deep sleeep and that nothing was recognisable. The situation was indefinable, unimaginable and indescribable". [a-sid idam tamo-bhutam aprajnatam alaksanam]/ [a-Pratarkyam anirdeshyam Prasuptam iva servatah]// Thus before the outset of creation primordial chaos preceded-everything was engulfed in deep 'darkness' and indiscriminate chaotic condition prevailed. [Prajapati], the primeval creator and the first Rishi, asserts that at that event prior to the cosmic evolution; there used to be indiscriminate 'darkness' which concealed with in itself, unrecognisable and indefinable substance called [salila]. This ever-moving substance in this formless void generated high temperature dur to which it all ultimatelyevolved into one indescibable unit:- [tama asit tamasa gulham agre]- [Prakatam salilam sarvam a idam]/ [tucchyena' bhvapihitam yad asit] [tapasas tan mahina'jayataikam// The word [tamas] here is a technical terms, used in Vedic cosmology to indicate the phenomenon that prevailed in the formless indescibable vacuu,- before creation. During the long period of [Mahapralaya], there was only universal void, where neither light nor darkness existed. This cosmic phenomenon is named as [tamas] by the Vedic Rishis. Likewise [Salila] too is another technical term used in this connection which may mean the primeval matter, may be something like gas or nuclear particle of far reaching consequence. In the Veda [salilam and apah] are always found mentioned whenever the question of cosmology is discussed or referred to. Here salila is an element whereas [apah] is a cosmic liquid deceived from Salila. This is clearly expressed in [apo va idam agre salilam asit]-"what was later called [apah] was inded [salila] prior to (the cosmic evolution)". Sayana derives this word from Sala to move, with suffix ila. And the Rigveda says this aslila or, [ambhah], which is also called [abhu] is a primary element. filled this cacuum when this unvierse was annihilated. This primary element is again referred to in the verse as [ambhas, and tamas] as [tucchya] which Sayana explains: [tucchyena....sad asad vilaksanena bhavarupa jnanena],and [tamas as atmatattvasya 'varakatvat maya' parasamijnam bhavarupa'jnanm atra tama ity ucyate. He says the phenomenon of darkness (tamas0 that prevailed before cosmic evolution was nothing but [maya]. an illusion, a thing that really did not exist and this [tamas] is a thing which is different form the sat and asat, matter and anti-matter. Again he explains [abhu as asamantat bhavatiti], a primary element that is found every-where. Here the cosmic vacuum is not really a total void but filled with the primary elements, the subtlest particles which when subjected to high temperature and radiation of far reaching effect, evolved as an indistinguishable cosmical unit and the isotropic homogeneous universe was instantly born [tucchyena'bhu apihitam yad asit tapasas tan mahina'jayatai'kam]- The emergence of the universe out of the pairs of particles and anti-particles is attributed to the Desire, the primordial seed and germ of the Supreme Spirita. The Kavis, the mustic scientists of the Veda, have long realised the inseparable bond ofkinship that existed between the sat and the [a-sat] and the cosmic radiation of heat and energy as the primary cause of evolution of the universe. [Kamastad aggre Samavartata'adhi manaso ratah prathamam yad asit/ Sato bandham asato niravindan hrdi pratisya kavayo manisa]// When this radiation is produced it pervades in a single instant like the rays of the sun in all directions and eventually the universe is instantly born. Lastly the Rishi confesses with a note of despair that his knowledge of cosmology is very limited and that he cannot say for certain out of which the universe emerged or evolved, and also whether its emergence was due to a series of evolution set in motion by Nature or it was all really created by [Prajapati] undergoing the process of evolution bygenerating heat. since the gods came into existence only after the emergence of the universe even they cannot answer this central question of cosmology and cosmogany. He is, thereofore, diffident and doubts whether even the Ruling Deity, who reigns supreme in the highest heaven could know the staisfactory answer to this question of prime importance at all. Here I must mention that in the cosmological versions narrated in the Veda the verbs used are mostly in imperfect tense (lan) as [asit], [avartata] etc., meaning 'used to be' -a statement of facts, not speculation or imagination. In the hymn referred to above, the Rishi, after giving a very brief account of primordial creation asserts that "the great sages have discovered the truth only after deep study and concentrated research". [niravindan hrdi pratisya kavayo manisa]. The Vedic Rishis, the mystic scientists of yore, many eons ago( probing the musteries of the universe) have thus made serious efforts to discover the truth and sought explanations and answer to the central question of cosmogony and cosmology with an open mind- neither inflexibility nor dogmatism haunted their method of thinking. In many of the cosmological versions in the Vedas [apah], the cosmic liquids, play a prominent part. They are the first -born, [Prathamajah] (R.V.X/109.1) and [Prathamah (R.V.X.111.8) Primeval, and are regarded as primordial substance of substratum.In almost all later cosmogonic versions "the starting point is either [Prajapati] desiring offspring and creating or else the primeval waters, on which floated the [Hiranya-garbha], the cosmic golden egg, which priduced the spirit that desired and created the universe .' This primeval golden Egg is described as radiating the light and heat equal to that of millions of suns-[tad andam abhavad dhaimam koti-surya-sama-prabham]/ something like 'the Primeval Fireball' that marked the origin of the early universe. According to one of the cosmological versions the universe emerged from this cosmic Golden Egg. The Primeval waters are included among the cosmic deities in the Vedas and they are intimately associated with many Vedic divinities. Fire, [Trita-aptya] and [Apam-Napat] among others, are said to have been born of waters or the cosmic liquids which are said to be bright and luminous (shubhram, candrah), pure and ddevoid of matter (Shucayah), they flow upwards upward and downward with equal velocity (R V.1.164.51) and flow in the reverse direction as well-[Prati pam shapam (RV.X.28.4). The cosmic waters flow towards the sun in deep streams and also towards the hihest heaven, where the gods live, where the sun shines and moves, and which has been identified as the realm of these waters. The word [apah] is generally derived from the root [ap] to pervaded teh entire universe and all that existed in the universe -stars, planets, sun etc., were evolved out of these first-born waters. Indra, the supreme Vedic deity being unable to realise the all-pervasiveness of the primeval waters asks: " Where is their spring, and where is their foundation? Where now, ye whaters where is your inmost centre? Where is your end?" It was further believed that they were the conductors of heat and light and the rays of the sun pervade the heaven encompassed in these waters -apo [vasana divam utpatanti]-. They constantly move and circulate the universe but whenever frictions occur between matter and ether, the circulation of the cosmic water comes to a standstill. This obstruction of the normal function of the cosmic waters is done, as described in the Vedas, by the Asuric force personmfied as [Vritra] in the Veda whom Indra kills with his thunderbolt and removes the obstruction. It must be noted that in the ancient literature, including the scriptures, truth is always concealed in myths and legends, and in narration of abstract ideas and feelings; mental assessments, are transformed into beings, anthropomorphic or otherwise.By passage of time the truth hidden in mythology was lost and the shadow figures assumed realistic appearance. It is abundantly clear from the above brief explanation that the waters that are said to circulate the universe and transmit sun's radiation are not aquae, the ordinary waters. From the Vedic description they appear to consist in some measure at leastthe properties of what are known as ether or helium. Ether was formerly believed to be imcomprehensive continuous fluid circulating with a definite unchageable velocity. It is " a medium that in the undulatory theory of light permeates all space and transmits transverse waves," and partially understood in terms of the phenomenon of eletricity and magnetism. The Vedic [apah] that are said to permeate space and transmit radiation appear to constitute some substance that somewhat approaches the properties of ether and helium. There is still another Vedic theory which attributes the borth of the universe to an explosion of [Om kara], the primoedial syllable, from the cosmic month of Brahma or -Prajapati]. The universe was evolved with its contents, movable and immovable, animate and inanimate, mortal and immortal, stars and planests etc., -as if from nothing, out of the frequencies of cosmic vibrations, -echoes and reechoes generated by the [nada] of [Omkara]. uttered by [Prajapati], the primeval creator in different frequencies. [Omkara] reduces the universe into [nadabrahma], sound waves, and it merges in the [Omkara], and at the time of birth of the universe emerges from the [nada] of the [Omkara] again, but all the time the Cosmic [Omkara] remaining full, [Purnam]. It is said that the entire Vedic learning remained in the womb of [Omkara] in low frequency during the dissolution of the Universe and the Rishis, on the birth of the universe guided by [Brahma] [Svayambhu], acquired the Vedic learning hidden in the [Omkara]. In this connection it may be remembered that the [Omkara] Supreme radiates energy through vibration in low frequency that permeates the [Vyakta]and [a-vyakta] universes; the Omkara which is identified with [shunya], void in some system of philosophy and which eternally remains full, is another name for the indefinable ultimate Eternal Entity. This[shunya], the indefinablevoid, is referred to in the Rigveda as filled with in-exhasutible subtle particles-[tucchyena apihitam abhu] as said above and is identified with Supreme Brahman in the Upanishad. Thus according to the Vedic tradition the universe has two aspects, [vyakta], the manifest material universe in which we live and [Avyakta], the anti-material universe not patent to out physical eyw. During the prolonged period of Pralaya, the material universe reduced into particles, atoms, merges into the anti-material universe and comes out of its unmanifest form into manifest form, when the creator sets on his appointed task. This cosmic event according to the Vedas is controlled by [Kala]. Further, there is in [A-vyakta] Supreme, which is [Sanatana], eternal, not bound by time and space, and which is beyond the material and anti-material universes. This A-vyakta is the Supreme Brahman, that controls both the material and anti-material universes and which is the ultimate destination of Yogins. The anti-material universe is the abode of gods, [Sadhyas] and Siddhas and is not affected by the Pralaya of the lower-plane. The Vedic passage [Yatra Purve Sadhyas santi Devah] refers to these divinities whose span of life differs in longevity depending on the grade of their spiritual achievement gained in the lowere plane. It is these divinities, including [Prajapati], who gained immortality through [sadhana], spiritual exercise when they realised the inner meaning of the sacred [gayatra] [saman], sung in it smysterious subtle form. The Veda in it entirety came down through its [nada] form mouth to nouth from time immemorial maintaining its purity and sanctity. In conclusion it must be mentioned that [vi-srshii] and [pralaya] are the two innate cosmic evnets like birth and death to a man. The [visrsti] is derived from the root [srj], which means to evolve, to transform itself with prefix vi-. Thus [vi-srshti] would mean great cosmic evolution, not exactly creation by any. This is a time-bound process in the universe, the cosmic events, birth, death, calamities, degeneration and destruction, as ordained by the Supreme Powere and executed by Kala, whose reign extends only over [vyakta] and [a-vyakta] universes. Thus in the Vedas we come across two main theories explaining what is called [bhava-vrtta] in the Vedas, whichgives an account of the origin of the universe. According to one, the present state of the universe resulted from a continuous evolutionary process, which commenced according to some with the appearance of [apah] and [salila], as the Yajurveda says: [apo va idam age salilam asit] (TS.7-1-5-1) 'In the beginning there used to be only 'water' which evolved from [Salila]', the ever -moving particles. It is clear that ap and [salila] are two different matters and that they do not stand for ordinary water. Etymologically ap means a thing that pervades and [Salila] means an element that is constantly in a state of motion. This expanding universe was born of or emerged from the invisible anti-material universe which was covered by darkness and was in teh state of indiscriminately primordial matter or particles set in motion. This primordial matter, which is the basic matter for sat and asat, engulfed in the womb of vast emptiness when subjected to a great temperature transformed itself into a single mass in which the matter and anti-matter were condensed. According to this cosmogonic version of the Rigveda, even the void or the vast emptiness, which appeared to contian nothing, was actually replete with the indiscriminated primordial matter. Further it is said that these mystic scientists of Vedic age, after deep investigation, discovered the innate kinship, common bond, between sat and asat, matter and anti-matter, -the two apparent opposite entities. Thus in this cosmogonic version wesee that the cosmos passed, in its process of multiple evolution, through the three stages: 1) vacuity filled with the basic primordial matter; 2) the state of anti-matter; 3) the emergence of the material universe. According to the second theory the universe emerged from the [nada], vibration, generated by the explision of Om from the cosmic mouth of the primeaval Creator. Here the vibration in different frequency constituted the primordial material, [upadana Karana] that fashioned the universe. It is interesting to note that the Omkara, even after the Cosmos emerged out of it, along with all its contents, remained undepleted, full, as before. In this connection it may be remembered that [Omkara] is said to radiate energy through vibration in low frequency and permeats the visible and invisible universe. It is, like [cakra], a symbol of eternity, a sign of completeness, -Purnata-that can never get exhausted, as also of nothingness, of priceless zero,-[shunyata]- of inestimable value. This [Omkara] has been described as having two aspects, one definable and the other indescribable. In the Rigveda too at the first stage from where the cosnic evolution starts, it was not governed by time and it was beyond the dominion of space. It was all covered by void engulfed in deep darkness. But at the same time this state of nothingness abounded in particles dormant with inexhaustible powere of reprodution when time ripened. This astounding paradox is clearly expressed in the following statement of the [Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad]. [Purnamadah Purnam idam purnat] [Purnamudacyate]/ [Purnasya Purnamadaya Purnameva'vashisyate]// That is full; this is full; out of the full the full emerges; Deduct full from the full, (still) the full alone remains." This, in brief, is the Vedic concept of cosmology. 15 CONCLUSION The entire range of the ancient literature of India beginning from the Vedas and ending with the [Itihasas] and [Puranas], is an inseparable integrated corpus of literary monument which reflects the great Indian tradition that has come down through centuries transcending time and space. This unique contribution of India to the world's wisdom and culture, comprising the [Samitas], [Brahmanas], [Aranyakas], Upanishads and the [Vedangas] on the one hand and teh scriptures propounding the different schools of thought, -not excluding the philosophy of [Charavakas], the atheists, --the epics and [Puranas] on the other, is the greatest achievement of ancient India, unsurpassed by the cultural and literary history of any other nation in the world. This is an uninterrupted stream of spiritual and cultural [Mandakini] that descended from the unscaleable heights of the lofty Himalayas and spread in the vast plain in different forms assuming different titles in Indian thinkers. This embodies the insight gained by our ancient Rishis in temporal as well as spiritual dominions of life andconstitutes the substratum of the moral and spiritual fabric of our great heritage, the foundation of all Indian religious though of which the humanity at large can rightly be proud. For a correct understanding of this ancient traditional literature, in which exalted thoughts and discouveries are clothed in riddles and paradoxes, in unfamiliar usages and expressions, one must have a wider and deeper knowledge of the entire range of this literature. It must be acknowledged in this connection that the Vedas cannot be studied in isolation leaving or overlooking the subsequent literature of ancient India, which traces its origin to the Vedas and which provides the key for understanding the abstruse thoughts and subtle ideas clothed ina language replete with riddles and symbols and contradictory statements. 2. In Indian tradition scientific experiment and religious practices more often than not go hand in hand. For instance, among others, astronomy, grammar, phonetics, etymology, mathematics and metrics are brought under the domain of the [Vedangas], the supplementary sciences of the Veda. Our astronomers in the past, closely following the foot-steps of mystic scientists of Vedic age, had approximately accurately estimated the distance from the earth to the moon and then to the Sun and also the circumference and diametre of the earth. They had even long discovered that the moon is a dead planet which shone but with the reflected light like a nirror that throws light when held against the sun's rays and the popular phrases-svatah [Prakasha] (shining with one's own splendour) and [Paratah Prakasha] (shining with reflected light) in Sanskrit vocabulary were coined on this analogy. Further they were aware of the fact that time differred from earth to the moon and that it was not the same from one planet to another even in the same solar system. The time for performance of sacrifice, for offering oblations to [Pitrus], for observing religious ceremonies of all kinds is calculated taking into account the movement of planets in the zodiac. For this reason in the syllabi of the ancient educational system the study of astronomy was made a part of compulsory education. In spiritual dominion too time differed from plane to plane; it differed from higher and subtler plane to the physical plane where we live. Moreover time like [Akasha], ether, pervaded the entire universe from one planetary system to another, -to the [Brahmanda-Koti ions of solar systems,-from [Vyakta], the manifest universe patent to our physical eye to [A-vyakta] the anti-material universe and beyond, that are not perceptible to our vision. In the field of grammar we have [Shikshas] and [Pratishakyas] that deal with the rules pertaining to phonetics and phonemes, pronunciation, accentography, euphonic combination, [Pada-patha] and [Samhita-patha]etc. These rules slightly differ in each Veda and its different recensions and hence there are as many [Shikshas] and [Pratishakhyas] answering the need of as many Vedic recensions. The Nirukta of Yaska is a commentary on the Nighantus in which the difficult words from the Vedas are coolected and listed in a classified order under certain main ideas. This is the oldest work on etymology and semantics which are the branches of linguistic science. These three kinds of works belong to the area of discipline of grammar. Yet, we don't have a comprehensive work on Vedic grammar as we have for classical Sanskrit. Of course in his [Ashtadhyayi Panini] has dealt on the Vedic grammar, though not exhaustively. The Shulba-[sutras] coming under the domain of Kalpa of the Vedanga, are directly attuned to the [Shrauta-Sutras]. They lay down directions for the construction of fire-altar, [Yajnashala], their measurement, the measurement of bricks etc., and are the oldest works that deal with [jyamiti], geometry a branch of mathematices. The distinct names for numerals, denomination for cardinal numbers running into billions and billions adding therets the symbol of Brahman the infinite, in Indian philosophy, are some of the fundamental contributions for the development of this science made by the ancient Indians long before the dawn of civilization in the horizon of many lands in the world. While astronomy, and mathematics are directly connected with the Vedic rites, grammar, etymology, phonetices and metrices are intimately connected with the language of the Vedic texts. The beginning of the Vedangas, it must be noted, goes back to the Vedas, where occasionally we come across ample evidence in support of this view in the text of the [Samhitas], in the Brahmanas and [Aranyaka], in the discussions on matters of phonetics, grammar, etymology, astronomy and metrics, although no specific names of the works of these subjects are found mentioned anywhere in the Vedic texts. Besides these six supplementary sciences, we also find references to medicine and surgery in the Vedas. For instance [Bhujyu], a ship-wreck, who broke his arm in a storm that raged the sea when he sailed and shattered his ship, was treated by the [Ashvins], the divine physicians, who set right [Bhujyu's] broken arm. Further we have indisputable references to marine navigation, sea-trade, to giant ships crossing the high seas etc., in the Vedas. The Vedic [Samhitas] now available to us, it may be noted in this connection, come under the category of [Rishi-Samhitas], which are described as [Pratyaksha-Paroksha], meaing the [Samhitas] that deal with the subjects, both esoteric as well as secular. This is the unique feature of Indiantradition, comprehensiveness of Vedic civilization, which encompasses not only religion, philosophy, and metaphysics, but also all possible subjects including arts and sciences- all these claiming to have originated from the Vedas and thus acknowleding strong ethical and spiritual background for everything they professed and practised. In the sattras, sacrificial sessions, lasting several days and nights even months and years there used to be music, vocal and instrumental, dance and other entertainments as part of the sacrificial ritual. The [Pushpasutra] of the [Samaveda] is the oldest book on musicology in the world as the Rigveda is the oldest literary monument of Indo-European community. The Vedic heritage preserved in India has bequeathed its mite not in a smaller measure for the advancement of world culture and civilization. Giving a briefaccount of the contributions made by ancient India to the world literature that embraced every branch of learning, Winternitz, the great German Indologist, observes:-- "Since the earliest times the Indian mind had a paricular predilection for detailed analysis and for the pedantic scientific treatment of all possible subjects. Therefore, we find in India not only an abundant, and partly ancient, literature on politics and economics, medicine, astrology and astronomy, arithmatic and geometry,- but alsomisis, singing, dancing and dramatic art, magic and divination, and even erotices, all arranged in scientific systems and treated in special manuals of instruction. 3. The religious practices and observances, sacrificial rituals and domestic rites are all replete with symbolic representations of abstruse ideas of abstract philosophical and metaphysical realm of thought which are brought into day today practice in the form of religious exercises as a means to educate a person into the secrets of esoteric doctrine and raise him gradually to the realm of occultism and metaphysics. By passage of time real significance of many of the religious obserbvances and rites are lost and forgotten rendering these practices to mere meaningless exercises. The [Samskaras] an Indian goes through at different stages of his religious life and the rites and observances he practices, are all aimed at the all round development of his inner personality, their ultimate obective being the realization of the ever lasting Supreme peace, [Para shanti]. This realization being a far cry for an ordinary person, the Rishis of yore have laid down the code of conduct for all so that a person going through the domain of religious activities can rise higher and higher from the level of [Adhibhuta] to that of [Adhidaiva], from the level of [Adhidaiva] to that of [Adhyatma]. When a person reaches this third covetable stage in his spiritualexistence after passing through the chain of several successive incarnations all his activities, although he appears to lead a normal life like any other person, are directed towards the realization of the ultimate Truth. The Vedic religion strongly believed in birth after death-in incarnations. For many this goal is beyond their reach even after passing through many an incarnation because of the thick coating of accumulated [Vasana], frequently contracted in their innumerable past births, still lingering. Which obscured their astral physique. However for a [Sadhaka] working with determination and having considerable experience in spiritual discipline gathered from previous incarnation who has discovered the landmarks pointing to the right direction on his march to spiritual progress, the goal is not far away. Through persistent [sadhana], spiritual exercise and discipline a [Sadhaka] purifies himself of all sins, past and present, and thus gradually loosens the bonds of karma, transcending the frontiers of gunas. This is the state of spiritual evolution that one achieves through [sadhana] spread over innumerable incarnations. A dehin, living in the astral body within the mental frame rises higher and higher till he reaches the last cross-road to his final destination. This is the most difficult juncture, a state of great crisis a turning point, in ayogin's life, whrn he has to finally decide on his future journey once for all, as [Bhagavan Buddha] did, either to come down to this [samsara] again to serve the suffering humanity or to continue his march towards his long cherished final destination, the state of [Nirvana], complete extinction, by merging in the great [void], the Infinite. The usual paradoxical expression we come across in our scriptures describing the mental suspension of yogins' life at this point is:-- The Goal is far and -also is near, -[durastham][cantike ca tat] (Bh. G.13-15). We are reminded, in this context, of the description of Brahman as revealed in dialectrical contradictions in the [Ishopanishad]. It says:-- It moves, it moves not, It is far, And it is near, It is inside of all this, Yet it is outside of all this. A [sadhaka], who aspires for final salvation at this stage, opts to cross the road and, casting off his astral body, finally reaches the Supreme Goal. referring to a Yogin who has successfully reached this stage, Bhagavan Shri Krishna observes:-- Prayatnadyatamanastu [yogi] samshuddhakilbisah/ anekajanmasamsiddhastato [yati][param] gatim// (Bh.G.6.45) 4. The sacrificial institutions occupied a most important place in the life of a Vedic Aryan. The sacrificial fire was kept burning in every house throughout the day and night and oblations were offered in the burning fire reciting the Vedic mantras twice a day, morning and evening. It was the first duty of a Vedic Aryan to kindle this fire early in the morning and, the fire, on this account, is rightly called [ushar budha], early riser. This fire rite is known as [Agni-hotra], a mini sacrifice, an obligatory rite for a dvija, a twice born. The smoke emerging from the fire-place of [Agnihotra] as well as from the fire-altars of the [Yajnasamsthas] purified the atmosphere, removed pollution, made the surroundings pure and thus created a congenial atmosphere for the development of the dormant sattvic qualities in each individual living in the premises. The Rigveda rightly begins with a hymn dedicated to Agni, in which Agni has been exalted as the conferer of material and spiritual blessings, dispeller of darkness etc. Most of these attributes of Agni are applicable equally to the fire that burns in the fire-place and that burns within a worshipper, i.e., the spiritual fire that dispells the darkness of ignorance:--[antah sharire jyotirmayohi shubhro yam pashyanti yatayah ksina-dosah]// The sacrificial fire provided the firm undisturbed electro-magnetic line for infallible communion with gods to whom Agni conveyed the offerings, while the spiritual Agni that is dormant within a [Sadhaka], when he is awakended, destroys all the sins and purifies his [Atman]. Yathaidhamsi Samiddho'gnirbhasmasat kurute'rjuna/ jnana'gnih sarvakarmani bhasmasatkuru'te tatha// (Bh. G. 4.37) Any selfless work that is done persistently with devotion and dedication for the good of humanity, for the welfare of the world, to enrich one's knowledge, in search of truth, is termed as [yajna], and all these meritorious acts are performed with the main objective of freeing oneself of the bondage of karma and to raise oneself to a higher and subtler, spiritual plane. In conclusion it must be mentioned that vi-srishti and [Pralaya] are innate cosmic events like birth and death to a man. The [visrsti] is derived from the root [srj], which means to evolve, to transform itself with the prefix vi-. Thus [vi-srishti] would mean great cosmic evolution, not exactly creation by any. This is a time-bound process in the universe, the cosmic events, birth, calamities, degeneration and destruction, as ordained by the Supreme Power and executed by [Kala], whose reign extendsover Vyakta and [A-vyakta] universes. This, in brief, is the Vedic concept of cosmology. The Veda, thus being an encyclopaedia of universal knowledge covering almost all subjects, secular, religious and philosophical, is an inexhaustible treasure of wisdom that has come down from eternity. In this connection I may cite an interesting episode referred to in the [Taittiriya][Brahmana] describing the dimension of th eVedic study. [Bharadvaja], as a student of the Vedas, had already dedicated his entire earlier three births successively int he exploration of knowledge treasured in the Vedas. Yet, he could not reach the end, when, Indra approached [Bharadvaja] and asked him, out of curiosity, if he, blessed him with another incarnation of full duration, then what he would do. Readily came the reply from [Bharadvaja] saying that the Vedas are like three unscaled and unexplored mountains and out of which in all these three long incarnations of [Brahmacharya], unbroken Vedic studentship, he could so far grasp just one handful from each Veda. The entire remaining area of knowledge is yetleft untouched. "Yes, of course, the dimensions of knowledge has no bounds-[anata vai vedah] I will certainly dedicate the entire period of my next life too, if granted, exploring the Vedas"- emphasised [Bharadvaja] unhesitatingly. Enquiries from pupil to teacher in the form of dialogues, question and answers, mainly in the later part of Vedas,- (Aranyakas and Upanishads-) all relating to the ultimate reality are quite instructive. In this regard lastly as an example, I may cite a quotation from the [Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad], which is the last answer given to over-inquisitive and impatient Gargi by the [Brahmarshi Yajnavalkya], her husband in their dialogue. This, I particularly I do, rememberance of the person who inspired me to write this brief Survey of Vedic Heritage, the answer is :-- " Ask not too much, [Gargi], that thy head may burst, Truly concerning divinity one must not ask too much. Thou doesn't ask too much, Gargi, ask not too much". APPENDIX-I [Brahma Svayambhu] | Veda | Samhita (=Collection of hymns) | [Brahmana (=explanation of mantras employed in sacrificial rites) | (Vedangas) [Aranyaka] | | (Karma-Kanda) [Upanishad] (jnanakanda) (Epics) and (Puranas) [Vedangas], Vedic ancillary works, They are six in number, viz., (1) [Shiksa](Phonetics), (2) [Vyakarana (grammar), (3) Chandas (=metre) (4) Nirukta (etymology), (5) Jyotisa (astronomy) and (6) Kalpa* (manual of rituals) *This consists of (1) Shrauta-[sutra], dealing with sacrificial rites, (2) Shulba-[sutra], dealing with the measurement of the place of sacrifice and the building of fire-altars, (-This is actually an appendix to the [Shrauta-sutra], (3) [Grihya-sutra], dealing with the domestic rites; (4) Dharma-[sutra], dealing with secular and religious laws. Note: Each Veda has its own [Kalpasutra], e.g., the Rigveda has [Ashvalayana-Shrauta-Sutra], as Well as [Ashvalayana-Grihyasutra-etc]. [Yugante'ntarhitan vedan setihasan maharsayah]/ lebhire [tapasa purvam anu-jnatad svayambhuva]// APPENDIX -II Veda Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Shakala Baskala- Krishna- Shukla Shaunaka Paippalada Shakha Shakha Yajurveda Yajurveda Kauthuma Ranayaniya Jaiminiya APPENDIX -III Rigveda Shakala-shakha Baskala-Shakha Aitareya Brahmana Shankhayana or Kausitaki Brahmana Aitareya - Aranyaka Shankhayana-Aranyaka Aitareya - Upanishad Kausitaki -Upanishad, APPENDIX -IV Yajurveda Krishna -Yajurveda Shukla -Yajurveda [Taittiriya-Samhita] [Kathaka] [Kapisthala- [Vijasaneyi-Samhita] Katha-Samhita] [Taittiriya-[Brahmana] [Maitrayani-Samhita] [Madhyandina-Samhita Kanva- Samhita [Taittiriya-Aranyaka [Maitrayani Upanishad Shatapatha Brahmana Brihadaranyaka- Upanishad]. [Taittiriya-Upanishad Katha-Upanishad Isa Upanishad *Isha-Upanishad [Mahanarayana-Upanishad] Shatapatha-Brahmana [Brihadaranyaka-Upanishad] *unlike the other Vedas this Upanishad constitutes the 40th chapter 9i.e., the last chapterp of the [Samhita] itself in Shukla tradition. APPENDIX -V [Samaveda] Kauthuma Ranayaniya Jaiminiya (1) [Tandya Brahmana] (2) Sadvimsha Br., Jaiminiya Br. jaiminiya Arseya Br. (3) [Samavidhana] Br., (4) [Arseya]Br., (5) [Devata'dhyaya] Br., (6) [Chandogya] Br., (7) [Samhitopanisad] Br., (8) Vamsha Br., *Jaiminiya Upanisad Br. [Chandogya-Upanisad] [Talavakara or Kena Upanisad] Note: No separate Brahmanas and *Though termed as a [Brahmana], this should be Upanishad are found for treated as belonging to the category of [Ranayaniya] recension. Aranyaka / Upanishad. APPENDIX -VI Atharveda Shaunaka-Samhita [Paippalada Samhita] Gopatha br. [Manduka-Upanishad Prashna-Upanisad [Mandukya-Upanishad etc. References : 1. amrtasya [pantha] na [tva] [jahati] satyasya [pantha] na [tva] [jahati] (JUB.VII 8.10) 2. RV. IX, 63.5 "Converting the entire world an ideal home (to live in)" 3. Vedo dharma-[mulam/[Smrtishile] ca [tadvidam] (G.Dh.1.1) 4. na[jatu] [kamah] [kamanam] upa-bhogena [shamyati]/ [havisa] [krsna-vartme'va [bhuya] [eva'bhivardhate//MBh. 5. '....tena tyaktena [bhunjitha] [ma] grdhah kasya cid dhanam (Isha Up.1.1) 6. [Pratyaksenanumitya] [va] yas [tupaye]na budhyate/ enam vidant vedena [tasmad] Vedasya [Vedata]// 7. Yo [brahmanam] [vi-[dadhati] [purvam] Yo [vedamsh] ca [Pra-hinoti tasmai]/ 9Shveta.Up.VI.18). 8. [anadi-nidhana] nitya [vag] [utsrsta] [svayambhuva]/ 9. Sarva-[Vaidika-vagjalasya] [samgraharupah] [bhuradyas] tisro [vyahrtayah] Pranava eka iti veda-traya-[saratvat] [tasam] [vyahrtinam] eva [sara-samgraha-bhutatvat] [akaradyatmakasya] Pranavasyeti [sapranavasu] [vyahrtisu] [sarva][vak] parimite'ti kecana veda-[vadino vadanti/ Sayana(RV.1.164.45). 10. [Vacas][turiyam] padam [manushyah][ajnas] [tajnash] ca vadanti vyaktam [uccarayanti] vyavaharanti/ Sayana(RV.1.164.45). 11. Vide : [catvari] [vak] [pari-mita] [padani] [tani] vidur [brahmana] ye [manisinah]/ [guha] trini [ni-hita] ne'ngayanti [turiyam] [vaco] [manusya] vadanti//(RV. 1.164.45). 12. [brahmanah] vedavidah [manisinah] [manasa] isino [medhavinah] .... [manisino manasah [svaminah] [svadhina-manaska] [brahmanah] [svakhyasya] shabda-brahmano'-[dhigantaro] yoginah [paradi-catvari] [padani] viduh [jananti]...Sayana (RV.1.164,45). For details read Sayana'commentary. 13. [Sa vai va srsta caturdha] vyabhavad esv eva lokesu [trini] pashusu [turiyam]/[ya] [prthivyam] [sa'gnau] [sa] rathantare/ya'ntarikse [sa] [vamadevya]/ [ya] divi [sa]'ditye [sa] brhati [sa] stanayitnau/atha pashus tato [ya] atyaricyata tam [brahmanesva] [adadhuh]/ [tasmad] [brahmana] [ubhayim] [vacam] vadanti [ya] ca [devanam] [ya] ca [manusyanam](Nir.13.9) 14. Read n.10 above. 15. uta tvah pashyan na dadarsha [vacam] uta tvah shrnvan na shrnoty enam/ uto tvasmai tanvam vi sasre [jayava] patya [ushati su-vasah]// (R.V.X.71.4). 16. [atha'pi [brahmanam] bhavati/[sa] vai [vak] asrstra caturo'- tha vyabhavadesveva lokesu [trini] pashusu [turiyam]/ [ya] [Prthivyam] [sa]'gnau [sa] rathamtare/ [ya'mtarikse sa] vayah [sa vamadevye/ya vagatyaricyata tam brahmanesu] [adadhuh tasmad brahmana, ubhayim vacam vadanti ya] ca [devanam] [ya] ca [manusyanam]// (Nir.13.9). 17. [brhat sama tatha samnam]-BG.X.35. 18. Bh.G.VIII.13; also, [giram asmy ekam aksaram Bh.G.X.25. 19. RV. X.90.1. "On every side pervading earth he fills 20. Bh.G.X.30. 21. Tv. X.190.43."Dhatar. the great creator, then formed in due order sun and Moon." He formed in order Heaven and Earth, the regions of the air, and light." Griffith 22. [Yugante'ntar hitan] [vedan][se'tihasan] maharsayah/ lebhire [tapasa] [purvam] anu-[jnata] [svayambhuva]// 23. mantro [hinah] svarato varnato [va] [mithya] prayukto na tam artham [aha]/ sa [vag-vajro] [yajamanam] hinasti yathe'ndra-shatruh svarato'pa [radhat] (Pa.Sh. 52.) 24. vide n.4. 25. tasmai sa [ho'vaca]dve Vidye veditavye iti ha sma brahmavide vadanti [para] [cai'vapara] ca/ [tatra'para] rgvedo yajurvedah samavedo atharvavedah shiksa kalpo [vyakaranam] niruktam chando jyotisam iti/ atha para [yaya] tad aksaram adhi-gamyate //(Mund up. 1.1.4-5). 26. [itihasa-Puranabhyam] vedam sam-upa-brnhayet/ bibhety alpa-[shrutad] vedo [mam] ayam praharediti// 27. Winternitz, History of Sanskrit Literature, Vol. I, PartI, p.258. 28. I bid., p. 22. 29. It may be noted in this context that only the persons who have performed the obligatory ceremonies at the appropriate age as prescribed in the Grhyasutras are qualified for the performance of sacrificial rites. 30. Winternitz, History of Sanskrit Literature, Vol. I, Pt. I, Introdution P.1. 31. I bid., p.5. 32. Sadvimsha [Brahmana]. I.3.16. 33. Nahy ayam [sthanor] [aparadhah] ydy enam andho na pashyati/(Nir.1). 34. Kas'yapo;gneh//Agir [Indrat]// Indro [vayoh]// [Vayur] [Mrtyoh]// [Mrtyuh Prajapateh]// Prajapatir Brahmanah// [Brahma] [Svayambhuh]// tasmai namas tasmai namah I I. 28.35. Vamsha [Brahmana ed. by B.R.SHARMA. 35. See fn. 22. 36. Kavayo vipas'citah/...niravindan hrdi [pratisya] Kavayo [manisa]//(RV.X.129.4) Kavayah [Kranta-darshanah] atita-anagata-vartamana'bhijna yoginah//[Sayana]. 37. Paroksa-[Priya] iva [devah] pratyaksa-vidvisah (Br.Ar.Up.4.2.2). 38. [Purvesam] [pantham] anu-drihya [dhirah] [anvalebhire] rathyo na [rashmin] RV.X.130.7. 39. Baghavad Gita. VIII.21. 40. RV.X.130.5. 41. RV.X.130.7. 42. [Sarva-paroksa] deva-[samhita] bhavati// (Sam.Up. Br.1.2). 43. [Sarva-Pratyaksa'sura-[samhita] bhavati//(ibid 1.3). 44. Paroksa-[Pratyaksa]'rsi-[samhita] bhavati //(ibid. 1.4). 45. te he [nakam] [mahimanah] sacanta yatra [purve][sadhyas] santi [devah]// RV.X.90.16. 46. Agnir iva Kaksam dahati// Brahma-Prstham [anadrtam (Sam.Up.Br.3.10). 47. vide Bhagavad Gita IV.1-3. 48. Ibid., XVIII.67. 49. rsyas tu [sarvada] aranye nirjane [ekante] [savicaran] [vedan]pathanti/ (Dvijarajabhatta), Sam. Up. Br. 1.4). 50. trir [upams'vaha] devebhya evainam [praha]// (TS.6.1.4.3). 51. vide The Vamsha [Brahmana] of the [Sama-veda ed. by B.R.Sharma; also refer 7.3-5, Jaiminiya -Upanishad [Brahmana ed. by B.R. Sharma]. 52. i bid; also [Shatapatha] [Brahmana], Chapter XIV. 53. vide. JUB. III. 7.3-5; IV. 9.1-2 ed. by B.R.Sharma. 54. vide SV Br. III.9.3. 55. vide P.V.Kane, History of Dharma Shastras, Vol. II, Pt. 1, pp. 668-9; 688-689. 56. [ardho'va] esa [atmanah] yat [patni] (Tai.Br.3.3.3) 57. agner [gayatry abhavat [sayugvo'snihaya] [savita] sam [babhuva]/ [anustubha] soma ukthair [mahasvan] brhaspater [brhati] [vacam avat]// [viran] [mitra]-varunayor abhis'ir indrasya tristub iha [bhago ahnah/ [vivasvan] [devan] [jagatyavives'a tena [caklpra] rsayo [manusyah] // RV.X.130.4-5. Also see RV.X90.9; TS.7.1.1.4. 58. [brahmavadino] vadanti [kasmad] [satyad] [gayatri] [kanistha] [chandasam] [sati] [yajnamukham] [pariyayeti]/ yad [evadah] somam [aharat] [tasmad] [yajnamukham] paryait [tasmat] [tejasvitama]//"The Theblogians say 'For what reasons is it that the Gayatri, the smallest of the metres holds the forefront of the sacrifice." Because she brought down soma, it held the forefront of the sacrifice; therefore it is the most glorious (of the metres)." TS.VI.1-6; A.B.Keith. 59. For details of this legend see fn.6. Chakra, the Symbol of Dharma, by B.R.sharma, Tansaction 51, Indian Institute of World Culture, Bangalore. 60. [Brhat sama] [tatha] [samnam] [gayatri] [Chandasam] [aham]//B.G.X.35. 61. tad etad amrtam [gayatram] / etena vai [prajapatir] amrtatvam agacchat/etena [devah] etena rsayah/. JUB.VII.3.1.9 by B.R.Sharma. 62. [ta rcah s'arirena] mrtyur anvait / tad [yacchariravat] tan [mrtyor]/ atha yad [as'ariram] tad amrtam/ [tasya' sarirena samna s'arirany adhunot]// ibid. I I I. 7.4.10 63. yo ha [va a-vidita'rseya-cchando-daivata-brahmanena] mantrena [yajayati][adhyapayat] [va sthanum] varcchati gartam [va] padyati [prava] miyate] [papiyan] bhavati/ [yatayamany] asya [chandamsi] bhavanti/ atha yo mantre mantre veda sarvam [ayur] [etis'reyan] bhavati/ [a-yata-yamany asya] [chandamsi] bhavanti/ [tasmad] [etani] mantre mantre vidyat// Ar.Br. 1.1.6 Ed by B.R.Sharma. 64. A. Hist. of Indian lit.p.54. 65. Shankha-Likhita, vide Hindu Samskaras, p.31, footnote 32-by R.B.Pande. 66. Upa-hvare [girinam] samgame ca [nadinam]/ dhiya vipro [ajayata]//RV.VIII.6 28. 67. iman vivasvate yogam [Proktavan] aham avyayam/ [vivasvan] manave [praha] manur [iksvakave'bravit]// evam [parampara]-[Praptam] imam [rajarsayo] viduh/ sa [kalena'ha mahata] yogo nastah paramtapa// sa [eva'yam mayate'dya] yogah proktah [puratanah/ [bhakto's] me [sakha] ce'ti rahasyam hy etad uttamam// 68. tamaso [va] esa tamah pravishati yam [a-vidvan] upanayate yash [ca'vidvan] iti hi [brahmanam]// Apa, Dh.S.1.1.1.11 69. Sattvam rajas tama iti [gunah] prakrti [sambhavah] nibadhnanti [mahabaho] dehe dehinam avyayam//B.G. 70. rajas tamash [ca'bhibhuya] sattvam bhavati bharata/ tamah sattvam rajash cai'va rajah sattvam tamas [tatha]. B.G. 71. I have since critically edited this [Samhita] with the commentaries of [sayana], [Anandabodha] and [Anantabhatta] and it is now being published by the Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala, Poona-7. The first volume consisting of 1-10 chapters has been already released. 72. rcy [adhyudham][sama]//[Mimamsa sutra]. 73. mantra-[tatparyartha-prakashako] [vedabhago] [brahmanam]/ [Sayana] RV.1.164.45 74. Max Muller, Chips from a German Worship, Vol.1. 75. Naki [devi][inimasi] na [khya] [yopayanasi]/ mantra-shrutyam [caramasi]// SV.176 76. Shankara, B.G. 77. Shreyan [dravyamayad] [yajnat] [jnana-yajnah] paramtapa/ B.G.IV.33. 78. [Jnanagnih sarva-karmani] [bhasmasat] kurute [tatha] [yathai'dhamsi samiddho'gnih] [bhasmasat] kurute'rjuna/ B.G.IV.37. It may be noted in this connection, that the ritual of applying ashes on the forehead by a Hindu symbolises the functioning of fire of knowledge within, consuming his accumulated karma every minute and reducing it to symbolic ashes on his forehead. The third eye referred to in the scriptures represents this [jnanagni]. 79. yat purusena [havisa deva yajnam] atanvata R.V.X.90.6. 80. Purusa ev'dam sarvam yad [bhutam] yac ca bhavyam// R.V.X.90.2. 81. [athato adhyatmikam'antaram agnihotram'] [Ityacaksate eta] ha vai purusa eva pratisthitah agnir [vaci][cayuh][prane][adityash] caksusi [candrama] manasi dishah shrotre [apo] retasi/[etasu] ha vai [sarvasu] hutam bhavati/ya evam [vidvan] [ashnati] ca pibati [ca'shayati] ca [payayati] ca [so'shnati] sa pibati sa trpyati sa tarpayati// shankhayana Aranyaka X.1. 82. [Sa trptah tad etad [vajrajam] dashavidham] agnihotram bhavati/tasya [prana][ahavaniyah]/ [apano] [garhapatyh]... satyam [ahutih]/ [prajna'tma]sa rasah/ tad etad [vairajam dashavidham, agnihotram hutam bhavati /lokam [rohobhyam] [abhyarulham] abhi svargam/ lokam gamayati/ ya evam [vidvan] [ashnati] ca pibati [ca'shayati][payayati ca]/ atha ya idam [avidvan] agnihotram juhoti [yatha'ngaram apohya bhasmani hutam [tadrk] tat [syat tadrk tat syat]// Ibid....8. 83. "But he who, casting aside vows and actions (i.e. fasts and other like observances) merely adheres to the Brahman, he moving about in the world identifying himself with the Brahman becomes a [Brahmacarin. To him the Brahman itself is the fuel, the Brahman the fire, the Brahman his origin, the Brahman water, the Brahman the instructor. He is rapt in the Brahman. Such is the subtle life as a Brahmacarin understood by the wise ....". XI.17, MBh. Anu Gita. 84. Aham Kraturaham [yajnas svadha'ham aham ausadham]/ mantro'ham ahma [ava'jyam aham agnir aham hutam// B.G.IX.16. "I am the sacrificer, I am the sacrifice, I am the exclamation uttering which the oblation is offered, I am the herb ( the soma) that is offered; I am the mantra (that is chanted whrn the offering is made); I am the ghee; I am the fire; I am the act of offering oblation (into fire)." 85. Vide RV.X.90. 86. Paras [tasmat] tu [bhavo'nyo'vyakto'vyaktat][sanatanah]/ yah sa sarvesu [bhutesu] nashyatsu na vinashyati// B.G.VI I I.20. "Beyond this unmanifest, there is yet another eternal unmanifest, that supremely Divine substance, which does not perish even though all beings perish." 87. See fn.82. 88. [Brahmarpanam brahma havir brahma'gnau brahmana] hutam/ brahma'iva tena gamtavyam brahma-karma[samadhina]// B.G.IV.24. 89. " [brahma'arpanam yena karanena] brahmavidbhavati aganu arpayati tat brahma'iva iti pashyati, tasya [atmavyatirekena abhvam] pashyati, [yatha] [shuktikayam] [rajata'bhavam., tad ucyate [brahmai'va] arpanam iti, [yatha yad rajatam] tat shuktikaive'ti/.../ yat arpana-[budhya] grhyate loke tat asya brahma-vidah brahmaiva ity arthah/ brahma havih [tatha] yat havir-[budhya][grhyamanam] tat brahmaiva asya/.../ agnir api brahmaiva yatra [huyate][brahmana][kartra], brahmaiva kartety arthah/yat yena hutam [havanakriya] tat brahma'iva/ yat yena gantavyam phalam tad api brahmai'va/ brahma-karma-[samadhina] brahmai'va karma brahma-karma brahma-karmani [samadhih] yasya sa brahma-[karma-samadhih] tena brahma-karma-[samadhina] brahmaiva gantavyam//. Shankaracharya B.G.IV.24. 90. Vide B.R.Sharma; Symbolism of Fire -altar in the Vedas. Annals of B.O.R.I., Vol. XXXIII, 1953. 91. Ch.Up. 4-8; Brhad. Ar. VI.2.9. 92. RV.X.90.7. 93. Paroksa-[priyah] pratyaksa-vidvisah/ 94. See note 25. 95. Tait.[Upa].3.1.1. 96. Raghuvamsha 1./ 97. evam [parampara-praptam] imam [rajarsayo viduh]/ [sakalene'ha mahata]yogo nastah paramtapa//Bh.G.IV.2. 98. ekam sad [vipra] [bahudha] vadanty agnim yamam [matarishvanam ahuh]// 99. " This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be." 100. "Aditi is all that hath been born and that shall be born." 101. [na'sadasin] no sad [asit tadanim] [na'sid] rajo no [vyoma] paro yet/ kim [avarivah kuha kasya dharman amb'ah kim [asid gahanam [gabhiram]// 102. kp ad [dha] veda ka iha pravocat kuta[ajata] kuta iyam visrstih/ [arvag] [deva] asya visarjanena'tha ko veda yata [abahuva]// 103. yo [asya'dhyaksah] parame vyoman-tso angaveda vadi [va] na veda// 104. [Ranayana]-[satyamugryi]-[vyasa] [bhagurir] aulundi gahlgulavir [bhanuman] aupamanyavo [daralo] [gargyah][savarnih] varsaganyash ca te dasha/ Kuthumish ca [shalihotrash ca jaiminish ca trayodasha/ ity ete [samagacaryah svasti kurvantu tarpitah], svastikuruantu tarpitah// B.R.Sharma, Vamsha [Brahmana], Appendix A, [Samatarpanam], p.30. 105. [Shati-ballabavi-kalabavi-tandyash] ca [Vrsanakash] ca rurukish ca [shamabahur] agastyo [baskashirash] ca [huhush] ca dasha/ ity ete pravacana-[kartarah] svasti kurvantu [tarpitah]/Ibid. 106. B.R.Sharma, Jaiminiyopanisad [Brahmana], I I I, VII.3-5. 107. See Note 104. 108. [hinkarah prastavat purvah]// [udgithad Omkarah]// (D.S.S.18.2.6.7). 109. [Rathamtarasyanstobhah] [svaravantah prayoktavyah] (Sam.Up.Br. II.23.ed. B.R.Sharma.) 110. yasyai'te svaravantah pra-yujyante yash cai'vam [Vidvan] Pra-yunkte [yatha] [ca'gni-candra-surya] [bhasvanto' pahata-[tamaskas] taduad [gatr-yajamanau] bhavatah/ I bid.II.21. 111. The [Tandya] is also called [Pancavimsha Brahmana] since it consists of 25 chapters. Out of the [Brahmanas of the Kauthuma, leaving, [Tandya] and Chandogya Brs. other six have seen edited by me and are available at the K.S.Vidyapeetha, Tirupati. 112. JA Br. and JU Br. have been edited by me and are available at K.S.Vidyapeetha, Tirupati. 113. Vide B.R.Sharma. jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana. Introduction pp.17-18. 114. I bid., 25-27. 115. [yam] imam [puspitam] [vacam] pra-vadanty avipascitah/ [Veda-vada-ratah partha nanyad astiti vadinah]// [Kama'tmanah svargapara janma-karma-phala-pradam]/ [Kriya-vishesa-bahulam] bhogaishvarya-gatim prati// bhoga'is hvarya-[prasaktanam] taya'pahrta-cetasam/ [vyavasaya'tmika] buddhih [samadhau] na [vidhiyate]// B.G.II.42-44. " No conviction of a resolute nature is formed in the mind of those who are attached to pleasures and power, and whose minds are drawn away by that flowery speech which the unwise,-enamoured of Vedic utterances, declaring there is nothing else, full of desire, having svarga as their goal -, utter,(a speech) which promises birth as the reward of actions and which abounds in specific acts for attainment of pleasure and power, O Son of Pritha." 116. vide DSS.23.4.1-49.ed.B.R.Sharma. 117. sarva-[paroksa] [devasamhita] bhavati// sarva-[pratyaksa]' sura-[samhita] bhavati / paroksa-pratyaksa'rsi-[samhita] bhavati// Sam.Up.Br.1.1-4. 117a. [gomamsam] bhaksayet nityam.. go-shabdeno'[dita][jihva] tatpravesho hi [taluni]/ gomamsa-bhaksanam proktam ja[ra-marana-nashanam]// H.P. 118. atho [naksatranam] divi somo adhi-shritah; R.V.X.85.1; [esam] upasthe soma [a-hitah]// X.85.2. 119. [Somena'ditya] balinah somena [prthivi mahi]/ X.85.2. 120. Vide Chakra: the Symbol of Dharma, pp. 6-7. By B.R.Sharma, Indian Institute of World Culture, Bangalore. 121. [satyeno'ttabhita] [bhumih] [suryeno'ttabhita] dyauh/ [gravnam icchrnvan] tisthasi na te [ashnati] [parthivah]// RV.1.85.1 122. [acchidvidhanair] gupito [barhataih] soma raksitah/ [gravanam] icchrnvan tisthasi na te [ashnati] [parthivah]// Rv.X.85 4. 123. Somam manyate [papivan] yat sampisanty osadhim/ somam yam [brahmana] vidur na [tasya'shnati] Kashcana// RV.X.85.3. 124. brhat [sama tatha] [samnam] [gayatri] [chandasam] aham/ "likewise among the [saman] melodies I am the [brhatsama]; among the metres I am the [gayatri] metre." Bh.G.X.35. 125. "Know that he who devotes himself to the Brahman is the (lower) Arani (i.e., the wood used for kindling fire) the instructor is the upper Arani. Penance and sacred learning cause the attrition, from that the fire of knowledge is preduced." Anugita XIV.9 2. 126. [Vidyaya sardham] mriyeta/ na [vidyam] [usare vapet]// Samh. Upa. Br.III.10. 127. B.G.II.42-44, Gorakhpur. 128. dravya-[yajnastapo-[yajna] yoga-[Yajnastatha'pare/ [svadhyaya-[jnana-yajnash ca yatayah samshita-[vratah]// B.G.IV.28. " some perform sacrifice with material things, some offer sacrifice in the shape of penances, others sacrifice through the practice of yoga, while some striving souls, observing austere vows, performs the sacrifice of wisdom, through the study of sacred texts." (Gorakhpur ed.). 129. [S'reyan] [dravyamayad] [yajnad] [jnana-yajnah] paramtapa/ sarvam [karma'khilam] [partha] [jnane] pari-[samapyate]// B.G.IV.33. "superior is wisdom-sacrifice to the sacrifice performed with material things, o Harasser of thy foes. All action without exception, O son of [Prtha], is culminated in wisdom."? 130. Shukla-krsne [gati] hy ete jagatah [shashvate] mate/ [ekaya yaty anavrttim anyaya'vartate] punah.// B.G.VIII.26. " These two paths of the world, the bright and the dark, are considered to be eternal. Proceeding by the one (i.e., the bright), one reaches the supreme state from which there is no return; and proceeeding by the other, one returns to the material world, and becomes subject to birth and death once more." (Gorakhpur ed.). 131. Bh. G.X.22.[Vedanam sama-vedo'smi]. 132. Bh.G.X.35. Brhat [sama] [tatha] [samnam] [gayatri] [chandasam aham]/ 133. Bh. G. X.25-[giram asmy ekam aksaram /[yajnanam] japa-[yajnosmi] 134. Read Introduction pp.36-37, [Devata'dhyaya]-Samhito-panishad-Vamsha- [Brahmanas],ed. B.R.Sharma. 135. "From the Unmanifested all the manifestations proceed at the coming of night they dissolve there only, in what is called the Unmanifested. (18). This same multitude of beings having into being again and again, is dissolved at the coming on of night, not of their will, O son Pritha and comes forth at the coming on of day (19). But that other eternal Unmanifested being, distinct from this Unmanifested (Avyakta'), -He does not perish when all creatures perish." (20.Tr. by A. Mahadeva Sastry.) Note: Commenting on verse 18, Bhagacan Shankaracharya says: "The unmanifested (Avyakta) is the sleeping condition of the [Prajapati] whi is asleep. Out of that, all manifestations (Vyakta), all creatures unmoving and moving [sthavara and Jangama], are manifested at the coming on of day, i.e., when [Brahma] awakes. So, at the coming on of night, i.e.,when [Brahma] goes to sleep, all the manifestations dissolve there only, in what is called [Avyakta], the one already spoken of ." B.G. with the commentary of Sri Sankaracharya, translated from the original Sanskrit into English by Alladi Madhava sastry. 136. Brhaspatir [indrayandivyam] varsa-sahasram pratipado' [ktanam] [shabdanam] shabda-[parayanam] [pro'vaca]/ indrash [ca'dhyeta]/ divyam varsa-sahassram adhyayana-[Kalo] [na'ntam] [jagama]/ / [Mahabhasya], [Paspashahnika]. 137. Veda-[shastrartha-tattvajno] yatra [kutrashrame] vasan/ ihai'va loke tisthan [va] brahma-[bhuyaya] kalpate// Manusmriti 12.102. 138. Concise Hisotry of Science in India, New Delhi 1971, See Chapter on Astronomy by S.N.sen p.p.116-117. 138a. Salila-maye shashini rever [didhitayo] [murchitas] tamo naisham./ 139. See Marine Navigation in the Vedas, by B.R. Sharma. 140. A History of Indian Literature, Vol.1, Part 1; p.3. Winternitz. 141. tad ejati tan nai'jati/tad [dure] tad antike/ tad antar asya sarvasya/ tad u [sarvasya'sya] [bahyatah]// Ish. Up. 5. This upanishadic statement of contradiction describing Brahman echoes and reechoes in the description of electron made by J.R. Oppenheimer. Hesays: "If we ask, for instance, whether the position of an electron remains the same, we must say 'no'. If we ask whether the eletron's position changes is at rest, we must say 'no'. If we ask whether it is in motion, we must say 'no.' 142. B.G.VI.45. 143. Mund.Up. 3.1.5. 144. BG.IV.37. 145. Here add the whole hymn (RV.X.129). 1. " There was not non-existent nor existent ; There was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter ? was water there, unfathomed depth of water?" 2. "Death was not there, nor was there aught immortal; no sign was there, the day's and night's divided. That one thing, featherless, preached by its own nature; apart from it was nothing whatsoever." 3. "Darkness there was : at first concealed in darkness This All was indiscriminated chaos. All that existed then was void and formless: by the great power of wormth was born that unit." 4. "Hereafter rose Desire in the beginning' Desire the primeval seed and germ of Spirit. Sages who searched with their hearts'thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent" 5. Transversely was their severing line extended: What was above it then, and what belowit? There were begathers, there were righty forces, free action here and energy up yonder." 6. "Who verily knows and who can here declare it, Whence it was born and whence comes this creation? The Gods are later-than this world's production. Who knows then whence it first came into being?" 7. "He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, whole eyes controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not." 146. RV.X.130.6, "Viewing the path of the Rishis of bygone age the modern intellectuals have taken up reins like Chariot-drivers." 147. Gop.Br.1.31. 148. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p.14. 149. Kva svid agram kva budhnam [asam] [apo] madhyam Kva [nunam natah]// RV.X.III.8. 150. Vide B.G.Tilak, Arctic Home in the Vedas; In my doctorate dissertation on Vedic Concept of [Apah] I have dealt in great detail with all aspects of [Apah]. 151. [Bharadvaj] ha vai tribhir [ayubhir] brahmacaryam [hovasa]/ tam ha....indra upavrajyo'[vaca] /yat te caturtham[ayur] ]dadyam] : Kim etena [kurya] iti/ brahmacaryam evaitena careyam iti ho'[vaca]/ tam [trin] [girirupan] [avajanatan] iva [darshayam] [cakara] /[tesam] hai'kaikasmin [mustina'dade ho'vaca bharadvajo'tya] mantrya Veda ete/ [ananta] vai [Vedah]/ etad [va] etais tribhir [ayurbhir] an [vovacatah]/ atha tad itarad anu'ktam eva//Tai. Br.III.10.11. 152. Austerity of the body, austerity of speech and austerity of the body. Vide BG.XVII, 14-16. 153. Brhad Ar. Up. GLOSSARY [Abhivadana] : Reverential salutation, salutation to a superior or an elder person by an inferior or junior one and especially to a teacher by his disciple. It consists of (1) rising from one's seat and touching the feet of the teacher with crossed hands-i.e., one should touch the right foot of the teacher with his own right hand and left foot with his left hand, (2) rising and standing half bent before him with folded hands stretched forward on a level with his ear, (3) repeating the form of salutation which includes the name or title or both of the person so addressed followed by the mention of his own pravara and gotra, the [sutra] and [shakha] of the Veda he adhered to and his own name. after this he, stretching his hands upto the ears; waves them up and down and says three times [aham bhoh abhivadaye], (O!I salute). The [Abhivadana] is as follows: [the names of the rishis--] [Pravaranvita [name of the Gotra-] [gotro'-tpannah][name of the Veda and its shakha-] [shakha'dhyayi] [name of the Sutra-] Sutrah (one's own name )-[sharma aham bhoh abhivadaye]. Then the teacher or the elder returns the salutation saying "mayst thou be long-lived O gentle one" [ayushman bhava saumya]-. The return of the salute is know as [Pratyabhivada]. [Acharya]-(carya) A learned teacher who performs the [upanayana] of the student and teaches the Veda to him. [Acchid-vidhana]- A system of words or other symbols, arbitrarily used to represent certain things, the identity of which is kept secret ; a jealously guarded secret; a secret code. [A-chandra-taram] (A-candra) as long as there are the moon and stars, meaning farely permanent. [Adbhuta Brahmana]- The last chapter of the shadvimsha-[Brahmana], belonging to the [Samaveda], which has prescribed expiatory rites for bad omens, natural calamities etc. [Adhvaryu] - Any officiating priest; A priest learned in the yajurveda and sacrificial rites. The participating priests in sacrificial sessions are four in number designated as 1) Adhvaryn, 2) Pratiprasthotar, 3) Neshtar and 4) Unnetar and they are generally known as the Adhvaryus. Among these the Adhvaryu is the chief officiating priest who plays the major role throughout from the beginning to the conclusion of a sacrifice. While they are engaged in various duties such as measuring and ploughing the sacrificial ground, building the altar, kindling the fire, milking the cows and so on they also have to repeat on each occasion the appropriate mantras of the yajurveda. The Adhvaryu among these has to order at the proper time the other priests of his own class as well as those of the other classes to chant the appropriate mantras of their respective Vedas applicable to the respective rites in the course of a sacrifice and also perform the relevant duties assigned to them. The officiating priests so addressed will answer to Adhvaryu with an exclamation of Shraushat or Vaushat and then chant the appropriate mantra or perform the duty as ordered. The teams of officiating priests including supervisory staff consists of:-- 1) Hotr-gana (class of Hotars learned in the Rigveda)-i.Hotar, ii. Maitravaruna, iii. [Acchavaka], and iv. [Gravastut]; 2) [Adhvaryu-gana] (class of Adhvaryus learned in the yajurveda)-i. Adhvaryu, ii. Pratiprasthotar, iii. Neshtar and iv. Unnetar; 3) Udgatr-gana (class of [Udgatars], learned in the Samaveda.) -i.[Udgatar, ii. Prastotar,iii. Pratihartar and iv. Subrahmanya; 4) Brahmagana (class of Brahmans, the supervisory staff learned in all the four Vedas and the Vedic rites; i.Brahman, ii. [Brahmanacchamsin], iii. [Agnidhra] and Potar. Among the priests of all these classes the Brahman is the most learned in the Vedas as well as in the sacrificial cult, and it is his duty to supervise the performance of sacrifice and to set right mistakes if committed. In the [yajna-shala] the sacrificial enclosure or hall, he has to sit by the right side of the [yajamana], the patron of sacrifice, and closely observe the performance of the sacrifice. He is normally an elderly person with much experience in this field and also spiritually much advanced and well-versed in sacred knowledge. He has to protect the personnel engaged in teh sacrifice as also the premises of [yajnashala] from the charges of evil and destructive forces. Hence, this is an office of great responsibility and commitment. [Ashyatma-tattva]- The truth pertaining to secret doctrine, true knowledge pertaining to Supreme Spirits. [Adhyatmikam] - relating to the Supreme Spirit. [Adrishta-(Adrsta-) The cumulative merit generated by the good acts of a person which is beyond the reach of perception or consciousness;the invisible merit or demerit attaching to a person's conduct in one State of existence and teh corresponsing reward or punishment with which he is visited in another. [Agneya-(-parvan)- The first chapter of the [Samaveda containing the verses mostly dedicated to Agni, God of fire. [Agni] - Fire, God of Fire. [Agnichayana(-cayana). A rare Soma sacrifice actually called [Atiratra] Agnicayana (over-night Agnicayana), which, like many other Vedic sacrifices, has become almost extinct. The word Agnicayana Philologically means arrangement of bricks for fire altar and the rites incorporate the construction of several fire altars including the main in the shape of [Suparna], the Golden Bird, with wings spread, to take up to heaven; piled up with more than 1000 bricks of various sizes in five layers. This is one of the most elaborate and spectacular Vedic rituals lasting twelve days and involving as many as eighteen priests learned in the Vedas; numerous recitations and chants; libations of Soma juice and ghee and oblations of other substances. [Ahavaniya]- A consecrated fire taken from the house-holders perpetual fire and prepared for receiving oblations. This is one of the three sacrificial fires, the other two being [Dakshinagni] and [Garhapatya]. [Ahina]- Asoma sacrifice lasting more than one day but less than ten nights. [Aindra]-(-parvan) The second chapter of the Samaveda consisting of verses mostly dedicated to Indra. [Akasha-(Akas'a-) The ever-shining space, the ether. [Akhyata]- a verb. [Akshyata-(a.Ksara-)-a syllable, a letter of the alphabet. [Amrita-(a-mrta-) The sacred knowledge that would lead one to immortality, the final emancipation (moksha), the nector conferring immortality that was brought down by the 'Golden Bird' from the high heaven. It was produced, according to the mythology, by charning the cosmic ocean; immortal, imperishable. [Amritatva (a-mrtatva-)- immortality. [A-nirukta-gana]- A Saman melody sung without its text being 'expressed' (a-nirukta). While chanting this melody, the vowels from the syllables of the text along with respective musical notes that they bear, are transferred to the phoneme bha and the listeners, consequently, hear only the notes of the Saman transferred to bha bereft of the text. This is done mostly with the melody Brihat has tremendous magical power. Therefore, while the text of a melody is chated in mind silently the musical notes of Saman are expressed through the bha sound. It may be noted that the Rathantara comes under the category of secret Saman melodies, known as Rahasya [ganas]. [a-nirvachaniya]-(-vacaniya) Indescribable, cannot be verbally explained, [anricham sama(anrcam-)-A saman melody that is entirely based on stobhas. [antaram agnihotram]-The worship of spiritual fire done internally through meditation as opposed to the Agnihotra normally done with materials (dravya). [Anukramani]- Index to a Vedic [Samhita] quoting the first word of each hymn in which the number of verses it contained, name and family of the Rishis, name of deities and metres of the hymns are recorded. [Anusvara]- The nasal sound which is marked by a dot above the line (.) and which always belongs to the preceding vowel. [Anvaharya-pachana (-Pacana-) The southern sacrificial fire (Dakshinagni) used for cooking the food given to the officiating priests in a sacrifice. This ceremony offering food to the priests is known as [Anvaharya]. [Apana]- One of the five vital airs of the body which goes downward and out at the anus. [a-paurusheya]- Superhuman; not of the authorship of man; of divine origin. [Apurva]- a cumulative force generated by the rituals performed by aman. See a-drishta. [a-putatva]- The innate impurity, impurity acquired by bad acts. [Aranyaka]- N. of a class of religious and philosophical writings closely connected with the [Brahmanas] which are either composed in a forest or must be studied there in secrecy. [Aranya-(parvan)- The fourth chapter of the Samaveda containing the verses on which the ganas of the Aranyegeya are based. [Aranye-geya] The last part of the [Purva-gana] based on [Aranya-parvan]. This is so called because it is to be sung in secret or in a forest. [Archika-(Arcika-). A collective name for the entire collection of the verses of the Samaveda, which is broadly divided into two parts, [purva], the first, and uttara, the second. The [purva-Archika] is again subdivided into four section viz., [Agneya], [Aindra], [Pavamana] and [Aranya] with an appendix known as [Mahanamn yarchika] consisting of ten verse added thereto at the end. The Uttara-[Archika] is divided into chapters but with no distinct denomination. The word [Archika], as far as the Samaveda is considered, is a synonym of Samhita. [artha-pradhana]- A composition attaching pre-eminece to the meaing conveyed by it rather than to its verbal form. [Aryavarta]- The home of the Vedic Aryans, the land of 'Seven Rivers' (Sindhu, and its four tributaries, [Ganga], and [Yamuna] extending from the eastern to the western ocean, and bounded on the north and south by the Himalayan and Vindhya range of mountains respectively. [a-shariram Sama](a-s'ariram-) A Saman melody composed exclusively on the stobha a secret saman passed on orally only to the initiated, see [Anricha Sama]. [Ashrama-(Asrama). a hermitage. [Ashvins]- The twin Vedic deities presiding over the twilights, and regarded as the physicians of heaven. [Ashtadhyayi]- Name of [Panini's] grammatical work comprising eight chapters. The grammatical works written after [Panini] beginning with the [Vartika] of [Katyayana]and [Mahabhashya] of [Patanjali] and terminating in the new grammatical schools associated with [Nagojibhatta] and [Koundabhatta]- all are in the form of sophisticated commentaries and explanation of [Panini's] [Ashtadhyayi], which is the first systematic description of the Sanskrit language spoken in [Panini's] time i.e., in about 6th CenturyB.C. [Asura-Samhita]- A Samhita that deals with mundane disciplines, arts, science amd technology. [Atman]. The soul, the individual soul. [Atma-Vikasa] self-development. [A-vyakta]- The Mula Prakriti out of which the universe emerges at the end of Pralaya, the great dissolution that takes place at the end of each Kalpa; a sort of antimaterial universe. [Bhaishajya]- a ceremony performed as a remedy for sickness, curativeness. [Bhakti]- A division of Saman melody. A Samagana is sung by the singer priests in a sacrifice dividing it into five musical units viz., [Prastava], [Udgitha], [Pratihara], [Upadrava] and ]Nidhana]. Among these [Prastava] is sung by the [Prastotar], [Udgitha] by the [Udgatar], [Pratihara] and [Upadrava] by the [Pratihartar] and [Nidhana] by all the three in chorus. [Bija-mantra]- A mystical syllable with which a mantra begins, the syllable which forms an essential part of a Mantra representing a deity; [Bija]- mantra will normally consist of a monosyllable and is regarded as effective and of great consequence. It is transmitted by a [Guru] to a disciple in secrecy and kept secret. [Brahma]. The impersonal universal spirit manifested as a personal creator. Later in teh Puranas he is the first of the triad of personal gods. [Brahma-Chakra](-Cakra). The cosmic cycle. [Brahma-Charin (-carin). A student of the Veda, a Chela of secret doctrine. [Brahmacharya (-carya). The religious studentship, the state of an unmarried religious student, a state of continence and celibacy, the life of celebacy passed by a Hindu boy in studying Veda and purusing Brahma-[vidya]. [Brahma-kala]- The early time in the morning before sunrise, the last [Yama] of a night i.e., between 3 a.m. to 6 a.m. [Brahman]- The word in neutral gender (Brahma) is used to mean the veda, a Vedic Mantra, Sacred text used as a spell, the Supreme Spirit. In Masculine gender (Brahma) it is used in the sense of the first creator who revealed the Vedas and sacred scriptures to the Maharshis performing [tapasya] in quest of spiritual knowledge at the commencement of a [Kalpa], see also Brahmagana under [Adhvaryu]-and [Brahma]. [Brahmana]- n. That portion of the Veda which contain the Vidhis, rules for employment of Vedic hymns at sacrifices and rituals, and Arthavadas, the explanatory notes. It is a treasure of old legends, etymological specualtions and symbolical represent- ation of things used in sacrifices and sacrificial procedures-a careful study of which may lead one ultimately to understand the hidden real meaning of sacrificial unstitutions. It warns the Readers whenever it deals with the passages pregnant with secret implications not to be carried away by the apparent meaning of the Mantras and Vedic rites but to seek the truth that is carefully hidden in the Vedic texts. N. of that class of Vedic works which contains the Brahmana portion. Each of the four Vedas has its daily, optional and occasional rites as prescibed by the Vedas; a student or knower of the Vedas. [Brahmarshi]- A sage well versed in spiritual knowledge. [Brahma-Prishtha (-Prstha)- A seer of [Brahman] parentage, the great Vedic heritage. [Brahmasutra]- A work written in the form of [sutras], aphorisms, treating of the knowledge of Supreme Being ascribed to [Badarayana] or [Vyasa]. [Brahma Svayambhu]- Self existent Supreme Spirit. [Brahma-Veda N.of the Atharvaveda. [Brahma-vid]- One who has realized the self-existent universal spirit. [Brahma-vidya]- Knowledge of Supreme Spirit, Science of spiritual realisation. [Brahma-Yajna]- Study of the Veda, performance of [Sandhya] the daily morning, noon and evening prayers. [Brihat-(Brahat) N.of a Saman melody having great mystical potence. [Daivi]- divine, relating to god. [Dasharatra]-(Dasa) A Soma sacrifice lasting ten nights. [Desha]- A place, Space. [Deva-Samhita]- The Samhita that deals with secret doctrine. [Deva-tarpana]- See under Tarpana. [Deva-tirtha]- The part of the hands sacred to the gods i.e., the tips of the fingers. [Dhyanaika-gamya]- attainable or cognisable through meditation alone. [Dravya]- The material substance offered in sacrificial fire a substance. [Dravya-yajna]- a sacrifice in which offerings of substances such as ghee, cake etc., are made, a material sacrifice. [Dyau]- heaven, the Sky, the divinity presiding over heaven or the Sky. [Dyauspati]- The lord of the sky. [Ekaha]- A one day Soma sacrifice. [Garhapatya]- The house -holders' perpetual fire, received from his father and transmitted to his descendant, one of the three sacrificial fires. [Garhasthya]- The order or stage of life of a householder. [Gayatri]- The sacred Vedic mantra of great mystical potence composed in Gayatri metre consisting of three padas, metrical lines of eight syllables each. It is as follows:- [Om [bhur] bhuvah svah/Om] tat savitur varenyam/ bhargo devasya [dhimahi]/ dhiyo yo nah [pracodayat]// (RV.III.62.10). A Hindu boy/girl is initiated with this mantra in his/her [Upanayana] ceremony by his father or [Acharya], Vedic teacher. After going through this ceremony he becomes eligible and fit to study the Vedas. A boy or a girl after his her [Upanayana], is called a [dvija], twice-born, a Brahmin. [Gotra]- The lineage; family; race. The word Gotra philologically means a cowpen, an enclosure for keeping the cows. This appellate is a reminder of the tribal life led by the Vedic Aryans in hoary antiquity. Cows were their wealth, a currency for barter and each tribe lived within-an enclosure under a Head after whom the Gotra was named-protecting their cows, women and children from being carried away by their rivals. Matrimony between the members of a family living in the same Gotra was prohibited. When people migrated from one gotra and got themselves absorbed in another Gotra, their original Gotra became [Pravara]. Each Gotra precede by its pravara, and the names of Rishis in a pravara indicate the number of migrations made by the ancestor of that family before the family finally settled down in its last Gotra. [Grame-geya]- The first part of [Purvagana] consisting the first three chapters viz., [Agneya], [Aindra] and [Pavamana]. the melodies in this part are so called because they can be sung in public unlike the melodies of [Aranye-geya], which are executed in seclusion. [Grihya-(Grhya-) (Karman) domestic (rites). [Hatha-Yoga]- A particular system of yoga or abstract meditation performed with much self-torture. [Hotar], (hotr)- An officiating priest learned in the Rigveda, one of the four classes of priests participating in sacrifice. See under [Adhvaryu]. [Indriya]- An organ of perception, faculty of sense. There are two kinds of Indriyas viz., [jnanendriyas] or [Buddhindriyas] (=organs of perception) and karmendriyas(=organs of action). The first consist of eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin, and the second larynx, hand, foot, anus and parts of generation. Between these ten and the soul or [atman], stands Manas or mind, which is considered by some as an eleventh organ. By adding Buddhi, Chitta and Ahankara to this list the organs are enumerated as fourteen in the Vedanta philosophy, each being presided over by its own ruler. Thus the eye by the Sun, the ear by the quarters of the world, the nose by the Ashwins, the tongue by [Prachetas], the skin by the Wind, the voice by Fire, the hand by Indra, the foot by Vishnu, the arms by Mitra, the parts of generation by [Prajapati], the Manas by the Moon, Buddhi by Brahman, Ahamkara by Shiva, and the Chitta by Vishnu as Achyuta. [Jaiminiya-Shakha]-(Sakha) N.of one of the three [samaveda] schools now prevalent in parts of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. [Janma-mrityu-Jara-vyadhi]. birth, death old age and illness. [Japa-Yajna]- Repeating prayers in an under-tone or uttering Mantras as a religious sacrifice. [Jivan-mukta]- emancipated while living, i.e., liberated before death from all liability to future births. [Jnana]. The knowledge of the Supreme Soul. [Jnana-Kanda]- That portion of the Veda which refers to the Spiritual knowledge or knowledge of Supreme spirit as distinguised from the knowledge of ceremonial rites. [Jnana-marga]- The path of isoteric knowledge that leads a [Sadhaka] gradually to his ultimate goal. [Jnana-yajna]- The wisdom sacrifice; persistent dedication to enrich one's knowledge of Brahman, the ultimate Truth. that leads one to final emancipation. [Kala]- Time. [Kala-chakra]- the wheel of time that ever revolves. [Kalpa]- One of the six Vedangas; viz., that which prescribes rituals and gives rules for ceremonial and sacrificial acts; a fabulous period of time (a day of Brahma or 1,000 yugas) being a period of 432 million years of mortals and measuring the duration of the world. A month of Brahma is supposed to contain thirty such Kalpas and twelve months of Brahma constitute his year; and one hundred such years his life-time, fifty years of Brahma's are supposed to have elapsed as we are now in the shveta-varaha-kalpa of the fifty first. At the end of kalpa the universe is annihilated. [Kalpa-sutra]- A manual of Shrauta rituals in the form of sutras. [Karma-Kanda]- That department of the Vedic tradition that relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites. [Karma-vipaka]- The ripening of actions, good or evil consequences in this life of human acts performed in previous births. [Kshudra]- The miscellaneous minor Soma sacrifices. [Linga-Sharira]- The subtle body, which accompanies the individual soul in all its incarnations. It is not destroyed by death. Since it is the sign and accompanyment of individuality marked by the accumulated burden of the [Vasanas] of the previous births it is called Linga-[Sharira], a body marked with graded signs depending on the achievements of the soul in its previous incarnations and also indicating its destiny. It can never perish until all the [Vasanas] are consumed in the flame of [jnana]- [yajna]. the individualised soul freed from all bondage of karma, finally merges in the [universal] soul. [Madhyama]- Speech in the third of its four stages from the first stirring of air or breath. [Mahad-avyakta]- The Mula-Prakriti, the original root or germ out of which matter or all apparent forms are evolved, a sort of anti- material universe as conceived in Vedic cosmology. [Mahanamnyarchika]-(arcika) an appendix consisting of ten verses called [Mahanamnis] or [Sharkaris], appended at the end of the [Purvarchika] of the [Samaveda]. [Mahatma]- A highly distinguished person in the Science of selfrealization, a noble soul. [Maheshvara]-(Mahesvara)-Name of Shiva, the god of Destruction [Manishin]- exceedingly wise in [Brahma-vidya] [Manishitva]- the state of being a [Manishin]. [Manushi]- human, pertaining to amn. [Mantra]- A vedic verse or hymn, a sacred text repeated in prayers, a spell. [Matra]- a mora, the length of time required to pronounce a short vowel. [Medha]- The high intelligence which can recollect the [Samskaras] of the previous life and also perceive the future events; the faculty of intelligence with great retentive power. [Mimamsaka]- A scholar learned in [Mimamsa] system of philosophy. [Mimamsa]- One of the six systems of Hindu philosophy. It was originally divided into two systems known as [Purva-Mimamsa] or Karma- [Mimamsa] founded by [Jaimini], and the [Uttara-Mimamsa] problems of correct interpretation of the Vedic rituals supporting its theory with citations from the Vedic texts. This system is mainly concerned with the procedures of performance of sacrificial science and consequent achievement of worldly pleasures and prosperity and after the death the attainment of Svarga-all this being a reward for faithful execution of Vedic rites in minute detail without committing any mistake or short- comings. Its aspirations do not go beyond the frontiers of Svarga, being the highest reward sought by any ritualist. The area of the Vedic literature, this system covers, extends from the [Samhitas] to the [Brahmanas] both forming the foreparts of the Vedas, directly related to the [yajna-samsthas]. Therefore it is rightly called [Purva-Mimamsa], a theory based on this earlier portions of the Veda. Uttara-[Mimamsa] is chiefly concerned with the nature of Brahma the Supreme Being. This system is entirely based on the later parts of the Veda comprising the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. Hence it is known as the Vedanta philosophy, a system of though (Mimamsa), firmly established on the Uttara, the later portion of the Veda. [Muladhara-chakra (-cakra). One of the seven mystical circles or centres of dormant spiritual power located one above the other, in one's own body. They are 1.[Muladhara]- parts about the pubis; 2. [Svadhisthana]-the umbilical region; 3. [Manipura], the pit of the stomach or epigastrium; 4. [Anahata], the root of the nose; 5. Vishuddha-the hollow between the frontal sinuses; 6. [Ajnakhya], the fontenelle or union of the coronal and sagittal sutures; 7. [Sahasrara], a kind of cavity said to be found in the top of the head and resemble a lotus reversed and believed to be the seat of the soul. Various faculties and divinities are said to be present in these centres of dormant spiritual power. These chakras represent the seven stages of gradations of Yogic must successfully pass observing strict discipline and, the [sahasrara], the last among these, is regarded as the gateway in his journey for accomplishment of his final goal, i.e. Moksha or [Nirvana]. NADA: Subtle sound waves generated by chanting of Mantras; Mystic sound waves that transcends time and space. [Nada-Brahman]- The great divine vibration that pervades the vyakta and a-vyakta universe. The [subtle] sound waves that reverberate when the mystical syllables and mantras are repeated. [naman]- a noun. [Nidhana]- N. of the last and concluding passage of a [Samagana] which is sung in chorus by the Udgatar priests. [nipata]- a technical term in grammar meaning an irregular form, a particle, an indiclinable. [nir-akara]- formless, incorporeal. [nir-guna]- devoid of all qualities. [nirukta]- N.or one of the six [Vedangas] treating the etymology and inter- pretation of the Vedic words. [nir-vikalpa-[samadhi]- an exclusive concentration upon the one entity without distinct and separate consciousness of the knower, the known and teh knowing and without even self-consciousness. [nishtha]- firm devotion. [nivritti]- Abstaining from worldly acts as opposed to pravritti. [Om-kara]- The sacred syllable Aum. [Pancha-maha-yajnas](Panca-). In Vedic tradition one has to perform five great sacrifices daily. They are: 1) [Brahmayajna], which consists in the study and teaching of the Veda; 2) Pitru-[yajna], which consists in offering of libation of water to the manes, 3) [Devayajna] which consists in offerings made into fire, 4) Manushya-[Yajna] which consists in honouring and feeding of guests and 5) [Bhuta-Yajna] which is performed by offering handful of cooked food to beings. These five daily obligatory acts enjoined to a house-holder are called [maha-sattras], great sacrificial sessions. They are regarded as greater than the shrauta sacrifices which are performed with a desire to secure Heaven or temporal benefits to oneself. These observances are, unlike the solemn Vedic rites, easy to perform and the central point in these daily principal acts of devotion is to discharge one's duties to the Gods, collectively representing the great creator or the Supreme Spirit, to the ancient sages who bequeathed the glorious heritage of sacred literature to us, to the pitrus, who passed on that great heritage to their progenies, to men representing the world community, who preserve the solemn old tradition and at last to all beings, which contribute directly and indirectly for the welfare and prosperity of the world. These daily sacrifices are to be performed according to the formulae prescribed in the Grihya-sutras, which differ according to the [Shakha] of a Veda that one adheres to. [Pada]- a line of a verse, the fourth part of a stanza. [para]- Speech in the first of its four stages. [Param dhaman]- The ultimate or highest goal. [Paramatman]- The Supreme Soul. [Parampara]- The tradition that has come down through the lineage. [ParaVidya]- Higher knowledge, the knowledge pertaining to [Brahmavidya]. [pashyanti](pas'yanti)-Speech in the second of its four stages. [Pathashala](-Sala)-a school, seminary. [Paushtika]- a ceremony relating to welfare. [Pitri-tarpana]- see under Tarpana. [Parvamana-(Parvan) The thrid chapter of the [Purvarchika], of the Samaveda consisting of verses mostly dedicated to Soma. [pitru-tirtha-(Pitr-) that part of the right-hand between the forefingers and the thumb considered to be sacred to Manes. [Prajapati]- Creator, the lord of Creation. [Prakrita (Prakrta-)- The Vulgar tongue (as opposed to Sanskrita) the language of common man, vernacular. [Prakriti]-(Prakrti-)- Nature, the original source of material world consisting of three gunas, Viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. [Prakriti-gana] (Prakrti-). The basic [gana]; Name of the work containing the [grame-geya] and [Aranye-geya]ganas of the [Samaveda]. [Pralaya]- Absolute reabsorption of the universe into the [Avyakta] without leaving a trace at the end of a Kalpa. [Pramanam]- Indisputable final authority. [Prana]- The breath of life, one of the five vital airs in the body, they are; [Prana], [Udana], [Samana], [Apana], and [Vyana]. [Prastava]- The first of the five parts of a Saman melody that is sung by the [Prastotar]. They are [Prastava] [udgitha], [Pratihara], Upadrava and Nidhana. [Prastotar-(Stotr) Name of the singer priest of the [Prastava], the first of the five passages of a [Saman] melody. [Pratihara]- Name of the third of the five divisions of a [Samagana] [Pratishakhya]-(-hartr)- Name of singer priest of [Pratihara] passage of a [Saman] melody. [Pratishakhya]-(-Sakhya) A grammatical treatise on the peculiar euphonic combination and pronunciation of letters, accents etc., which prevails in different [shakhas] of the Vedas. [Pratyabhivada]- See [Abhivadana]. [Pravritti]-(-Vrtti-)- Active worldly life (as opposed to nivritti and to contemplative devotion, and defined as consisting of the wish to act, knowledge of the means, and accomplishment of the object). [Prayashchitta]-(Prayascitta) expiation, atonement, the expiatory rite. [Pravachanakara]-(-vacana-) one who exposed the teachings of the Vedas, eloquent speaker propagating the systems of philosophy. [Pravara]- A paricular line of Rishis connected with each Gotra of a Hindu family. [Prithivi]-(Prthivi-). The Earth, the presiding divinity over the earth. [Purana]- Name of a class of well-known semi-mythological sacred works supposed to have been composed by Vyasa, the author of [Mahabharata]. the chief [Puranas] are eighteen in number grouped in three divisions: 1. [Rajasa], exalting Brahma- vaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya and [Vamana] 2. [Sathvika], exalting Vishnu (e.g. the Vishnu, Bhargava, Naradita, Garuda, Padma and Varaha), 3. [Tamasa] exalting Shiva (Shiva,Linga, Skanda, Agni or [Vayu], Matsya and Kurma). A Purana treats of five topics viz., 1. Sarga (Creation) 2. Pratisarga (Dissolution) 3. Vamsha (Dynasty), 4. Manvantara (the ages or periods of a Manu (they are fourteen)and 5. the history of dynasties. [Purusha]- The Supreme Soul. [Purva]- The first part, the earlier portion. [Purva-archika(-arcika)- the first part of the [Samaveda]. [Purva-gana]- The first book of melodies of the samaveda consisting of Grame-geya, Aranye-geya and Mahanamyarchika. These are based on the verses of the [Purvarchika]. [Rahasya]- a secret, mystical or isoteric teaching, any secret doctrine or mystery. [Rahasya-gana]- The [ganas] belonging to the books of Aranye-geya of the [Purva-gana], and of the [uhya] of the Uttara-[gana]. [Rajarshi]- A Royal sage, Rishi born of Kshatriya Parentage. [Rathantara]- Name of a [Sama-gana]. [Rigveda](Rgveda). The first of the four Vedas consisting of 10472 verses distri- buted in 1028 hymns and composed in 20 metres; divided into eight ashtakas or ten Mandalas; the Mandalas 2-8 contain groups of hymns, each group ascribed to one Rishi or members of family of one Rishi; the ninth Mandala contains the hymns sung in the Soma rituals; the first and the tenth Mandala contain hymns of a different character ascribed to a greater variety of individual Rishis; while most of the hymns are composed in praise of Nature and the deities presiding over nature, there are a number of hymns exploring the mysteries of the universe and its creator; comprising theories and speculations about the origin, evolution and involution of the universe-cosmogony and cosmology- mysticism and metaphysics. Most of these hymns are found in Mandalas 1 and 10. These are also fine pieces of poems of per anthology of world poems. the Vedic language greatly differs from the classical Sanskrit and the hymns are to be chanted with accents, [udatta], [anudatta] and svarita. [Rishi] (Rsi)- A seer, a sage capable to perceive events past, present and future transcending time and space; inspired personages to whom [Brahma], the first Creator revealed the knowledge of the Vedas and passed on the Vedic heritage. [Rishi-tarpana]-(Rsi) See under Tarpana. [Rita]-(rta)- The eternal truth that pervades the entire universe including vyakta and avyakta and controls and regulates its functioning; supreme cosmic power that guards the destiny of the Cosmos. [Ritvik](Rtvik)- A priest in a sacrifice. [Sadasya]- A learned priest well-versed in sacrificial science who super- vises the performance of sacrifice and correct mistakes and short-comings in its performance. [Sadhaka]- An adept in quest of Eternal Truth, a neophyte constantly engaged in spiritual exercises leading straight to the goal aspired. [Sadhana]- spiritual or yogic exercise for accomplishment of desired object; constant spiritual discipline leading straight to the goal aspired. [Samagana]- a melody of the [Samaveda]. [Samatarpana]- satiating, Gods, Rishis and the manes by presenting to them the oblation of waters accordings to the [Samavedic] tradition. [Samhita]- A text treated according to euphonic rules, especially the text of the Vedas as formed out of the [Padas] or separate words by proper phonetic changes according to the rules of different [Shakhas], any methodically arranged collection of texts or verses. [Samhita-patha]- The continuous text of the Veda as formed out of Pada [Patha]. [Samidha]- the fuel for kindling fire. [Samkalpa]- A solemn vow to perform any ritual observance in which a person has to pronounce his name, and gotra with pravara, the Vedic [shakha] he followed, the Vedic era etc. and then the name of the particular ritual observance that is going to be performed; declaration of resolve to perform a religious act. [Samlekhana]- religious suicide practised in Jainism by fasting upto death. [Sam-nyasa]- complete renunciation of the world and its possessions and attachments; profession of asceticism. [Sampradaya]- The establised Vedic tradition; the age-old custom. [Samsara]- The mundane world. [Samskara]- A purificatory rite. [Samvatsara]- A Soma sacrifice lasting one full year. [Samdhi]- euphonic junction of final and initial letters of the separate words in a sentence as well as the collition of the previous and following letters within a word. [Sarvasvara]- Name of a Soma sacrifice. [Sattra]- a sacrificial session lasting more than ten nights. [Satya]- Eternal truth expressed through words. [Shabda-Brahman]-(-Sabda)- The recitation of the sacred text, the Vedas, the spiritual knowledge expressed in words. [Shabda-Pradhana]-(Sabda-) A sacred text of which no word or syllable can be altered or changed. [Shankhayana-Aranyaka]-(Sankha-). Name of an [Aranyaka] of the rigveda. [Shatapatha-brahmana]-(Sata-) Name of the Brahmana of the [Shukla-yajurveda]; preserved in its two [Shakhas], [Madhyandina] and [Kanva]. It is divided into 14 Khandas or books which contain one hundered chapters. The whole work is regarded as the most systematic and interesting of all the [Brahmanas] containing six chapters constitute the celebrated [Brihadaranyaka] Upanishad. [Shiksha]-(Siksa). One of the six Vedangas that describes the science which teaches proper articulation and pronunciation comprising the knowledge of letters, accents, quantity, the use of organs of pronunciation, and phonetics generally, but specially the laws of euphony peculiar to the Vedas. [Shraddha](Sraddha). the Faith deified. [Shraddha]- A ceremony in honour and for the benefit of the dead relative performed at the end of one full year after the death. It is performed by offering [Pindas] or balls of rice and the dishes specially prepared in this occasion to the forefathers of three generations, paternal and material , i.e., the deceased father/ mother, grandfather and great grandfather. It is believed that the food thus offered would supply the dead with the strengthening nutriment after the previous funeral rites, and that until the funeral rites (antyeshti) have been performed and until the succeeding first [Shraddha] has been celebrated the deceased person remians in the [Preta] state, a state of wandering ghost, with no real body except a [lingasharira] . The ceremonies performed after the death of a relative are supposed to endow a dead person with an ethereal or astral body and it is not until the first [Sraddha] has taken place that he attains a position among the [Pitrus], or Divine Fathers in their blissful abode called [Pitru]- [loka]. In this ceremony the main rite is known as [Sapindikarana], in which after offering [Pindas] to three forefathers and to the dead relative separately all these four [Pindas] are mixed together and then out of the mingled mass of rice three pindas are prepared indicating that the dead person has been admitted into the rank of the [Pitrus]. The three forefathers occupy a position in ascending order, the first in the fold of Vasus, the next in the fold of [Adityas], the highest in the line ic., the soul of the great grandfather. The last in this line, on comp- letion of his term of stay in [Pitru-loka] comes back to this world to be born again in a family as ordained by his destiny depending on the karma of his previous life. It may be noted that this ceremony now is ususally performed on the 12th day after the death as part of the funeral obsequies. It must be known in this connection that the path of a yogin, a Siddha, is different, which through his [sadhana] leads him to the higher plane and ultimately to [Para] [Shanti] from where he will never return to this world. This path is described in the [Bhagavadgita] as [Shukla], a highway that remians always illuminated and not obscured by the fog of [vasanas]. [Shrauta]-(Srauta)- An observance prescribed by the Veda; a ritual enjoined by the Veda. [Shukla]-(yajurveda)-(Sukla-). The white yajurveda. It ts white because in this the [Samhita] is cleared from confusion with its [Brahmana] and is as it were white or orderly. [Siddhayogin]. A great fully accomplished yogin. [Stobha]- Words, phrases or syllables of mystical value inserted when a [saman] verse is rendered into a melody; exclamation in praise of god. [Stoma]- A form of [Saman] melody in which strophes are arranged in various ways as prescribed in the [Tandya] [Brahmana] chapter II, III. [Sutra]- an aphorism. [Svadhyaya]- The study of the obligatory part of one's own Veda; repetition of the Veda. [Svarga]- The heaven. [Svarita]- The circumflex accent, a kind of mixed tone produced by a combination of [Udatta], the high tone and [Anudatta], the low tone. [Tapas]. Penance, austerity. [Tapasya]- penance and meditation. [Tarpana]- (Satiating by offering water to gods, Rishis and Pitris). Tarpana is a subsidiary constituent part of daily [Snana] (bath) and also of [Brahmayajna] and [Shraddha]; [Pitru-yajna] consists but of Tarpana. 1. [Snana]. When a person plunges his whole body in water including his head, he has to perform [tarpana] while still standing in water. He joins his hands together take water in the joined hands and pours it into the stream in which he is standing. If he changes his clothes he may perform it on the bank of the river. After offering water to gods, Rishis, Pitrus he should wring the ends of his garment and the water so falling down is deemed to be meant for the sonless deceased persons born in his family. It must be noted that the [tarpana] is to be performed according to the procedure prescribed in the [Grihyasutra] of the Vedic [Shakha] (School), which one follows: 2. [Deva-tarpana]- The [Aswalayana] Grihya-[sutra] of the Rig-veda has listed 31 gods to whom [tarpana] is to be offered. Among these[Dyava- prithivi] (heaven and earth), [Gandharva] and [Apsarasas] and days and nights are counted as single entities. further in this list Rishis,[Sankhyas], [Siddhas], [Sadhyas], [Vipras] and even [Yakshas] and [rakshasas] as also snakes, birds and cows have been raised to the rank of Gods and the Vedas, the metres, [vyahrtis], [Omkara] and sacrifices -all pertaining to the sacred heritage on one hand and oceans, the rivers, the mountains, the fields, herbs and trees-the natural objects on the community of Devas. This is a widely representative list covering alomst all species of beings and other entities, who are all regarded to have possessed divine inheritance. This is evidently done to bring into focus the point of all-pervasiveness of the [vibhutis], the divine power, manifested in various forms and also to bring home the fact reminding a man of his indebtedness to them for his mater- ial and spiritual well-being. The [tarpana] is thus essentially an act of acknowledgement by man of his obligation to all these divine forms, which are all mentioned in the list. He discharges his duty to them with a feeling of gratitute, reverence and devoti- on when he performs tarpana. While performing the [Deva-tarpana], the sacred thread is worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm, i.e., in the [Upavita] form and the water is cast by that part of the hand which is called [Deva-tirtha](i.e. the tips of the fingers). 3. [Rishi-tarpana] (Rshi). The Rishis, to whom water is offered are divided into two groups. The first group consists of twelve Rishis, all are the seers of the hymns of the Rigveda. While performing tarpana to these Rishis the sacred thread worn in the [nivita] form i.e., round the neck like a neck-lace and the water is offered by the [Devatirtha] as it is done to the gods. The second group is again divided into two subgroups. The first sub-groups consists of 20 sages including three women and the second is made up of 17 sages all mentioned individually by name or family name unlike in the first sub-group in which the male Rishis are grouped in two compounds and in two separate sentences whereas the names of three female Rishis, are mentioned in three separate sentence and the water also is offered to each of them individually. In the first sentence, among the Rishis grouped together, four figure by name and others by designation as acharyas, teachers of [Sutra], [bhashya], [Bharata], [Mahabharata] and [Dharma] respecti- vely. The four Rishis, viz., [Sumantu], [Jaimini], [Vaisham- payana] and [Paila] were the direct disciples of [Vyasa] who taught them the Vedas . In the second sub-group there are seventeen Rishis and all appear separately. The tarpana is offered to them individually to each unlike in the earlier groups in which offering is made collectively. In the last a miscellan- eous offering is made to all other teachers saying 'may all the other [acharyas] be satisfied' (ye [canye][acaryas] te sarve trpyantu). While offering water to Rishis belonging to the second group the sacred thread is to be worn in the [Prachina- vita] form, just as in the [Pitru-tarpana]. The Rishis on the whole listed in several groups can be graded in three categories. 1) The primeval Rishis, to whom the Vedas was revealed by Brahman in the beginning of creation; 2) The Rishis, who were the teachers of the Veda and interpreters of the secret doctrine imbibed in the sacred heritage and who maintained the live magnetic line of ancient immortal wisdom intact and lastly. 3) The Rishis who were teachers of the Veda but gave more importance to [Karma-kanda],-rituals and observances. The Rishis belonging to the first line, i.e., the primeval Rishis, being initiated by Brahman himslef in the beginning of the Yuga, realizedthe eternal wisdom by performing [tapasya], penance and meditation and not by study under a guru, whereas the rest in the lineage, belonging to the second and third line, learnt the Veda from their gurus. It may be noted that the women Rishis, who belonged to the second line were the great [Brahmavadinis] of the Upanishadic age and were the teachers of the Veda and also initiators into the secrets of the great tradition. 4) Lastly, comes the [Pitru-tarpana]. In this rite the tarpana is performed to the [Pitrus] of three generations, i.e., one's deceased parents, grand parents and great grandparents, both paternal and maternal, and also relatives. While performing [Pitru-tarpana] the sacred thread is to be worn in the [Prachinavita] form i.e., over the right shoulder and under the left arm and offer water by the [Pitru-tirtha] i.e., by that part of the right hand between the forefinger and the thumb. It must be noted that [Pitru-tarpana] can be performed only by a man whose father is dead. Note: The foregoing brief account of tarpana is given as generally practised by the followers of the Rigveda. [Rishi-Samhita]. The [Samhita] that deals with [Para] (higher) and [apara] (lower) knowledge. [Trayi]- The three Vedas taken collectively. [Tricha]-(trca)- A strophe consisting of three Vedic verses. [Udatta]- The accute accent. name of one of the three Vedic accents, other two being [Anudatta] and [Svarita]. [Udgatar](Udgatr) An officiating priest learned in the [Samaveda]. He sings [Udgitha], the second passage of a [Samagana] in a Sacrifice. [Udgitha]- Name of the second passage of a [Samagana] to be sung an [Udgatar]. [Udumbara]- The tree Ficus Glomerate. [Upadrava]- Name of the fourth of five divisions of a [Sama-gana] to be sung by [Pratihartar]. [Uha]- Name of melodies of the first part of the [Uttara-gana]. [uhya]- Name of melodies of the second part of the [uttara-gana]. [Upanayana]- The investiture ceremony in which a boy is invested with the sacred thread and is initiated by communicating to him the [Gayatri mantra], by his father or [Acharya]. [Upanayana] philologically means "leading near to " for initiation. This is one of the most important [Samskaras], purificatory ceremonies, a ritual of a great significance since only after this a boy is admitted into the fold of [dvijas], the twice-born, and promoted as a Brahmin. For him the first birth is through the womb of his mother while the second is marked by the investiture ceremony, which in Vedic tradition, is known as [Brahmajanma]. In this spiritual incarnation, [Savitri], the [Gayatri] [Mantra], acts as the mother, and the person who initiates the boy into the secrets of [Brahmavidya] as father. This initiation was common to both boys and girls in the Hindu societyin olden days but later this [Samskara] was commonly confined to boys alone. The women well-versed in the Vedas and [Brahmavidya] were known in the Veda as [Brahmavadinis], the promoters of the great Vedic[Sampradaya], the magnetic line of the eternal wisdom and spiritual realization. [Upanishad](-nisad) The book of esoteric or secret doctrine attached to the [Brahmanas], the chief aim of which is the exposition of the secret meaning of the Veda. Out of 108 Upanishad about 20 are regarded as ancient and authoritative and the rest are sectarian in contents and of later origin. [Upasarga]- A prefix, a preposition or particle joined to a verb. [Usharbudha]- One who wakes up at dawn; the fire particularly the house- holders' fire, kindled early in the morning. [Uttamam Rahasyam]. The greatest secret. [Uttara]- The second part, the later portaion. [Uttara-archika]-(-arcika). The second part of the [Samaveda]. [Uttara-gana]. The [Saman] melodies based on the verses of the [Uttara- rchika], the [uha] and [uhya] [ganas]. [Vairajam Agnihotram]. An Agnihotra sacrifice to [Virat][Purusha]. [Vak]. a mystical word or syllable. [Vamadevya]- Name of a [Saman] melody revealed to or composed by the sage [Vamadeva]. [Vanaprastha]- A person in the third stage of life who has passed through the earlier two stages, of student and householder and has abondo- ned his house and family and retired to forest to lead ascetic life. [Varuna]- A great Vedic deity described as the Supreme upholder of law in the moral as well in the physical world, creator of justice and sole lord of the universe with unlimited control over human destinies. He is said to move high in the heaven watching every actions of men with his thousand eyes. He is one of the most important Vedic deities, but who later in Post-Vedic liter- ature is reduced to the status of a mere waterdivinity. [Vayu]- The wind. The presiding deity over the wind. [Vedanga]. A certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to Veda. They are six in number:--1) [Shiksha], the phonetic treatise,2)Chandas, metre, 3)[Vyakarana], grammar.4) Nirukta, explanation of diffi- cult Vedic works, 5) Jyotisha, astronomy, 6) Kalpa, ceremonial represented by a large number of [Shrauta sutras]. The first and the second of these Vedangas are intended to secure correct rea- ding and fourth the correct understangding of it, and the fifth and sixth its proper employment at sacrifices and religious rites. [Vedi]- The fire altar. [Vibhuti]- The media, through which the greatness of lord is manifested; splendour; magnificance. [Vidya]- Science, learning, philosophy. [Vikriti-gana]- The [ganas] based on the [Prakriti-gana], the [uha] and [uhya] melodies. [Virat-Purusha](Purusa). The first progeny emerged from the Supreme Universal Spirit. [Visarga]- a symbol in writing representing a distinct hard, aspiration and marked by two perpendicular dots(:). [Vishnu]-(visnu). The Sun, name of the God charged with responsibility of protention and preservation. [Visrishti]-(visrsti-) Creation, the word philologically means pushing out, ejecting. The universe, which had merged into the [a-vyakta], a sort of anti-universe at the end of Kalpa and disappeared, emerges again in the same from at the beginning of the following Kalpa. See Pralaya. [Vishtuti]- a variety of arraangement of Saman verses for recitation. In these arrangements each song is made up of three verses (tricha) and repitition of verses varies in each of them. [Vrata]. religious observance. [Vyahriti]-(-hrti). The mystical utterance of the names of the seven words, viz., [bhuh], [bhuvah], [svah], [mahah], [janah], [tapah],and [satyam]; the first three of which called [Maha-vyahritis] are uttered after Om by every Dvija in commencing his daily [Samdhya]. It is held that these three great mystical syllables when distinctly uttered reverberate generating vibration which would pervade the three worlds, the earth, atmosphere and the ever-shining world beyond. [Vyakarana]- grammar, one of the six Vedangas, the auxiliary literature of the Veda ; linguistic analysis. [Vyana]- Name of one of the five vital airs that diffuses the body, the other four being [Prana], [udana], [Samana] and [Apana]. [Vyavahariki vak]- The common speech, vulgar langauge. [Yajamana]- A patron of sacrifice. [Yajna]- A sacrifice [Yajna-Samstha]- The institution consisting of seven primary sacrifices. They are [Agnishtoma], [Atyagnistoma], [Ukthya], [Shodashin], [Atira- tra and [Aptoryama]. [Yajna-shala]- A sacrificial hall; an enclosure built for performing sacrifice. [Yajnopavita]- The sacred thread worn by a Hindu over the left shoulders and under the right arm. It consists of three cords, each cord being formed by twisting three threads into one. At a religious cere- mony called [Upanayana], the father or Acharya invests a boy with the sacred thread and also initiates him into the secrets of [Gayatri Mantra]. See Upanayana. [Yaska]- Name of the author of the Nirukta, the oldest available work, explains the difficult Vedic words. The time of Yaska is to be about 6th century B.C. [Yajurveda]- Name of one of the four Vedas, other three being Rigveda, [Samaveda] and [Atharvaveda]. It is arranged in the order of sacrifices and yajus means sacrificial formula. [Yogin]- One possessed of Superhuman power; a follower of yoga system. [Yoni]- The original source; origin [Yuga]- The age of the material universe (vyakta-) of which there are four viz., Krita or Satya (1,728,000 years), Treta (1,296,000 years), Dwapara (8,64,000years), and Kali(4,32,000 years). Among these four three have already elapsed and Kali is the age in which we live, and which began at midnignt between the 17th and 18th of Feb 3102. These four yugas of total dura- tion of 4,320,000 years make a Mahayuga, a great yuga. such 1000 yugas constitute a Kalpa or a day of Brahma which is the life of the manifested material unvierse (vyakta-) A Kalpa of the same duration forms the night of Brahma when the material universe dissolves and merges into the A-vyakta or Mula-Prak- riti. a sort of anti-universe. See Kalpa. [Yupa]- a post or pillar to which the sacrificial victim is fastined.